Rivers in peril: How pollution endangers India’s water lifelines

Water at several locations in Prayagraj during the recently concluded Maha Kumbh did not meet the primary bathing water quality standard due to high faecal coliform levels, a report by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) dated February 3 informed the National Green Tribunal (NGT).

However, in a new report submitted to the tribunal on February 28, the CPCB said statistical analysis showed that the water in the Ganga at Triveni Sangam in Prayagraj was fit for bathing during the Maha Kumbh.

The reports draw attention to the broader issue of river pollution in India, which is worsening with rapid urbanisation and industrial growth. River pollution affects public health and causes ecological degradation, affecting biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems. The situation highlights the urgent need to address river pollution and restore rivers to their past glory. 

Notably, India is one of the first nations to recognise rivers as “living people”. Despite this, water bodies in the country continue to face severe pollution issues. Let’s explore the major reasons behind river pollution, analyse statistics, and explore the way forward.   

What data says 

Under the National Water Quality Network, the CPCB, in association with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees (PCCs), carries out periodic assessments to assess the water quality of different water sources. Any location/stretch of the river having a Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of more than 3mg/l is identified as polluted and unsuitable for outdoor bathing. BOD is a key indicator of water quality. It measures the oxygen needed to break down organic matter. 

In one of its reports released in 2022, the CPCB identified 311 polluted river stretches on 279 polluted rivers in India. It found 46 river stretches with a BOD concentration of more than 30 mg/L, which indicates a high level of organic pollution in the water and makes it toxic not only for human consumption but also for aquatic life. 

The state of Maharashtra has the highest number of polluted stretches (55). However, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (6 each) have the most highly polluted stretches. The Cooum River of Tamil Nadu has the most polluted stretch with a BOD of more than 345.0 mg/l. 

Similarly, the annual report of the CPCB (2022-2023) released in September 2024 reveals that during a Manual Monitoring carried out at 97 locations in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, it was found that at 52 locations, fecal coliform (FC) was more than 2500 MPN/100 ml. FC is an indicator of sewage contamination. 

Major causes of river pollution 

The Supreme Court in January this year said that tanneries in Tamil Nadu’s Vellore district have caused “irreversible damage to the waterbodies, groundwater and agricultural lands” by discharging untreated or partially treated effluents into the Palar River. The top court termed it as ‘ecocide’. The case highlights the severe impact of industrial pollution on water bodies.

However, industrial effluents are one among several other reasons behind river pollution. Some of them are discussed below. 

Untreated sewage: Among all the anthropogenic sources, untreated sewage remains the primary reason behind river pollution in India. According to the CPCB, more than 60% of untreated sewage water is released into rivers daily, which makes the water unsafe and creates serious problems for the local population and aquatic ecosystem. 

Untreated industrial effluents: After untreated sewage, untreated industrial effluents are a major cause of river pollution. Industries such as those producing chemicals, sugar, paper, and tanneries generate wastewater that contains toxic chemicals, which poses serious risks and potentially fatal consequences in some cases.

Municipal solid waste: Another major factor is municipal solid waste. Due to inadequate waste management facilities and ineffective enforcement of waste management regulations, millions of tons of solid waste are dumped directly into water bodies every year. It not only impedes river flow but also damages the aquatic ecosystem. 

Agricultural runoff: Agricultural runoff further contributes to river pollution. It contains pesticides and fertilisers, which introduce toxic chemicals into the water. The nutrients like nitrogen in the runoff can also cause eutrophication – a process that depletes oxygen in the water and thereby increases the BOD of the river. 

Sand mining and illegal encroachment: Furthermore, sand mining and illegal encroachment are also becoming significant contributors to river pollution. These activities disrupt the natural flow of rivers, increase the risk of flooding in local areas, and add to river pollution due to inadequate waste management facilities. 

Legal framework and policy response 

The primary legislation related to water pollution in India, including river pollution, is the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, which establishes the CPCB as the central unit for planning and regulating environmental matters and SPCB as a state-level major institution with the responsibility to enforce environmental standards. 

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, levies a cess on water consumed by certain industries to fund pollution control activities. In 1986, the Environment Protection Act was enacted, which is an umbrella legislation on the environment. Under this Act, the Environment (Protection) Rules were notified by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in November 1986. These rules lay down standards for industrial discharge. 

To deal with the problem of waste, the government also notified several rules on waste management, including rules on solid waste, biomedical waste, E-waste waste, etc. The National Water Policy, 2012, also highlights the need to safeguard water bodies by addressing pollution stemming from poor sanitation and insufficient sewage treatment facilities. 

However, due to weak enforcement mechanisms and the lack of coordination among various agencies, legal interventions often fail to effectively control river pollution. It underscores the need for comprehensive and well-coordinated initiatives to address the issue. In this context, the government has implemented several river rejuvenation programmes.

River rejuvenation programmes

The government of India has executed several river rejuvenation programmes over the years. The most noteworthy is the Ganga Action Plan (GAP), which was launched in 1985. It was implemented in two phases, with a primary focus on sewage interception and treatment facilities. 

In 1996, the plan was merged with the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP).  Till 2014, Rs. 20,000 crores had been spent to achieve the objectives of the GAP, but it achieved limited success due to various reasons, including its limited coverage, mismanagement of funds, inappropriate technological choice, etc. Along the same lines, the Yamuna Action Plan was launched in 1993. It was implemented in three phases but met with challenges similar to GAP.  

In 2014, the Namami Gange Programme (NGP) was launched, which superseded the GAP. NGP is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). It adopted a holistic approach and has made considerable progress on the issue of sewage treatment facilities, but issues like illegal encroachments, poor industrial compliance, and waste dumping continue to persist on a large scale.  

Moreover, till December 2024, only ₹19,271 crores have been spent under the programme, which is less than half of the amount originally set to be utilised by 2026. 

Way forward

Despite decades of legal efforts and policy interventions, river pollution in India continues to be a pervasive problem. The rejuvenation programmes have made some progress. Encouraging community participation by creating awareness and fostering behavioural changes in matters related to waste creation and management might help.

Furthermore, with the ever-changing nature of pollutants, the preventive and controlling measures require to be updated accordingly. Advanced technology, including Artificial Intelligence, may be harnessed for real-time monitoring and waste management.  

Rivers are self-cleansing entities to a certain extent. To ensure their natural flow, it is essential to curb issues such as extensive river sand mining and encroachments. Also, there is a need to strengthen the coordination among pollution control authorities along with the collaboration between government, industries, and local population.  

India’s rivers need to be restored to their natural glory, which is possible only through urgent and coordinated actions by all the stakeholders. 

Post-Read Questions

How does inadequate waste management contribute to river pollution?

What are the environmental impacts of municipal solid waste on rivers? How does agricultural runoff contribute to river pollution?

What is the primary legislation in India addressing water pollution, including river pollution?

What are some of the river rejuvenation programs implemented by the government to address pollution?

What changes are needed to improve the effectiveness of legal interventions in controlling river pollution?

(Renuka is a Doctoral researcher at Himachal Pradesh National law university, Shimla.)

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