UPSC Key | Unified Lending Interface, Gaganyaan mission, Vaccine-derived polio and more

Economy

For ‘frictionless credit’, RBI to launch technology platform; to call it Unified Lending Interface: Das 

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: GS-III: Economy

What’s the ongoing story-  Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Governor Shaktikanta Das on Monday said that a nationwide launch of the Unified Lending Interface (ULI) will happen in due course. Similar to Unified Payment Interface (UPI), which has revolutionised the retail payment system in the country, ULI will transform the lending landscape.

Prerequisites: 

— What is the Digital Public Infrastructure?

— What is the ‘plug and play’ approach?

— What is the JAM (Jan Dhan, Aadhar, and Mobile) trinity?

Key takeaways: 

— The RBI Governor on Monday proposed to call the tech platform for frictionless credit as Unified Lending Interface (ULI). He said just like UPI transformed the payments ecosystem, he expects that ULI will play a similar role in transforming the lending space in the country.

— For digital credit delivery, the data required for credit appraisal are available with different entities like Central and State governments, account aggregators, banks, credit information companies and digital identity authorities. However, these data sets are in separate systems, creating hindrance in frictionless and timely delivery of rule-based lending.

— The RBI Governor said that ULI platform will facilitate a seamless and consent-based flow of digital information, including land records of various states, from multiple data service providers to lenders. It will cut down the time taken for credit appraisal, especially for smaller and rural borrowers.

— He said that the ULI architecture has common and standardised APIs (Application Programming Interface), designed for a ‘plug and play’ approach to ensure digital access to information from diverse sources.

— “The ‘new trinity’ of JAM-UPI-ULI will be a revolutionary step forward in India’s digital infrastructure journey,” he stated.

— The JAM (Jan Dhan, Aadhar and Mobile) trinity is a tool used by the government to transfer cash benefits directly to the bank account of the beneficiary.

For Your Information: 

— Unified Payments Interface or UPI is a real-time payment system launched in India in April 2016 by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI). 

— It is a system that powers multiple bank accounts into a single mobile application (of any participating bank), merging several banking features, seamless fund routing & merchant payments into one hood.

— UPI also caters to the “Peer to Peer” collection request which can be scheduled and paid as per requirement and convenience.

— UPI has played a significant role in the growth of retail digital payments in the country. While initial participants on the UPI platform were banks, non-bank third-party app providers and use of QR (quick-response) codes have all combined in popularising UPI.

Points to Ponder: 

— What is the role of JAM in the digital revolution in India?

— What are the challenges of digital public infrastructure?

— What are the steps taken by the government in digitalisation of different sectors of the economy?

Post Read Question:

Prelims

(1) ‘Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana’ has been launched for (UPSC CSE 2015)

(a) providing housing loan to poor people at cheaper interest rates

(b) promoting women’s Self-Help Groups in backward areas

(c) promoting financial inclusion in the country

(d) providing financial help to the marginalized communities

Mains

Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is necessary for bringing unbanked to the institutional finance fold. Do you agree with this for financial inclusion of the poorer section of the Indian society? Give arguments to justify your opinion. (UPSC CSE 2016)

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

Digital Public Infrastructure: The story of India’s digital revolution

Govt & Politics

Assam cites national interest, allows Vedanta project in Gibbon habitat

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: GS-III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation

What’s the ongoing story- Citing national interest, the Assam wildlife department has recommended to the Centre that forest clearance be granted to a Cairn Oil and Gas proposal for oil and gas exploration in the eco-sensitive zone (ESZ) of the Hollongapar Gibbon wildlife sanctuary, home to the endangered Hoolock Gibbon and wild elephants, official records show.

Prerequisites: 

— Read about Hoolock Gibbon- habitate and IUCN status

— What is the eco-sensitive zone (ESZ)?

— What is the role of the Forest Advisory Committee (FAC)?

— Location: Hoollongapar Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary

Key takeaways: 

— Cairn Oil and Gas, Vedanta’s subsidiary, has sought diversion of 4.49 hectares of forest land for oil and gas exploration drilling in Jorhat, Assam, and is currently pending before the Union Environment Ministry’s Forest Advisory Committee (FAC).

— FAC had last month sought the state Chief Wildlife Warden’s views on the project from a wildlife conservation point of view.

— “As the project is of national interest, it may be recommended for granting Forest Clearance subject to the following conditions,” the Chief Wildlife Warden said.

— Among the four conditions mentioned, the top wildlife officer said that the exploration work should happen with minimal tree felling without causing “adverse impact” to “wild animals and their habitat.”

For Your Information: 

— The proposed infra upgrade in the Great Nicobar Project has been opposed on grounds of the threat it poses to the ecology of the islands. The opposition has focused on the potentially devastating impact on the Shompen, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) of hunter-gatherers with an estimated population of a few hundred individuals who live in a tribal reserve on the island.

— It has been alleged that the project violates the rights of the tribal population, and will impact the island’s ecology with the felling of nearly a million trees. It is feared that the port project will destroy coral reefs with spinoff effects on the local marine ecosystem, and pose a threat to the terrestrial Nicobar Megapode bird and leatherback turtles who nest in the Galathea Bay area.

Points to Ponder: 

— How to create a balance between conservation and development?

— Why ESZ was created?

— What is the significance of the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)?

Post Read Question:

(2) Consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE 2010)

Protected area	Well-known for
1. Bhiterkanika, Orissa	Salt Water Crocodile
2. Desert National Park, Rajasthan	Great Indian Bustard
3. Eravikulam, Kerala	Hoolock Gibbon

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 2 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

Strategic imperative and environment concern in Great Nicobar project

Shah announces 5 new districts for Ladakh; will get more focus: PM

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: GS-II: Polity and Constitution 

What’s the ongoing story- Union Home Minister Amit Shah on Monday announced the creation of five new districts in the Union Territory (UT) of Ladakh.

Prerequisites: 

— What is the Article 370?

— Why Ladakh was made a Union Territory?

— What is the significance of Ladakh in terms of national security?

Key takeaways: 

— “The new districts, namely Zanskar, Drass, Sham, Nubra, and Changthang, will take the benefits meant for the people to their doorsteps by bolstering governance in every nook and cranny,” he added.

— “Ladakh is a very large Union Territory in terms of area. At present, Ladakh has two districts; Leh and Kargil. It is one of the least populated areas of India. Being extremely difficult and inaccessible, at present the district administration was facing many difficulties in reaching the grassroots level….” an MHA spokesperson said in a statement.

— An MHA official said the Ladakh region was left behind in the race for development due to the difference in social fabric and the so-called discrimination of the state governments. 

— Ladakh was made a UT after the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir was bifurcated into two UTs on August 5, 2019. The other UT is Jammu and Kashmir.

— The move to create new districts was welcomed in Ladakh but with a reiteration of the demand for greater political representation. “The creation of new districts can be truly beneficial if it is accompanied by the establishment of an Assembly and subsequent democratic processes. Without this, Ladakh faces a risk of more bureaucratic layers rather than enhancing democratic governance,” social activist Sajjad Kargili said.

For Your Information: 

— In a meeting with representatives from Ladakh (March 2024), which has been witnessing protests recently, Union Home Minister Amit Shah offered to extend Article 371-like protections to the region. 

— Shah is learnt to have told the Leh Apex Body (ABL) and the Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) that their concerns related to jobs, land, and culture would be taken care of, but the government would not go as far as to include Ladakh in the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution.

— ABL and KDA, the two socio-political organisations spearheading the movement, are pursuing four main demands: statehood for Ladakh, safeguards under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, reservation of jobs for the youth of Ladakh, and the creation of separate Parliamentary constituencies for the two parts of the region — Leh and Kargil.

Points to Ponder: 

— What are the demands of the people of Ladakh?

— Why organisations like the ABL and the KDA have demanded that Ladakh be included under the Sixth Schedule?

— Which states are included in the Sixth Schedule?

Post Read Question:

(3) Consider the following statements:

1. The special status conferred to the state of Jammu and Kashmir was removed by Parliament in 2018.

2. The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 bifurcated the state into three union territories- Leh, Ladakh, and Jammu & Kashmir.

Which of the following statements is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

Explained: Ladakh, Article 371, and the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution

Despite govt assurance, Ladakh shuts over statehood demand

India, Singapore explore boosting ties on ‘six pillars’ at bilateral meet

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: GS-II: Bilateral agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests; Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.

What’s the ongoing story- Senior ministers from India and Singapore held a “productive” round of discussions at the second multi-ministerial roundtable here and explored how the two countries can boost bilateral cooperation in digital, skill development, sustainability, healthcare, connectivity and advanced manufacturing.

Prerequisites: 

— What is the history of India-Singapore bilateral ties?

— Map work: Location of Singapore and other south-asian countries, Straits of Malacca. 

Key takeaways: 

— The four-member Indian delegation comprised Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar, Commerce Minister Piyush Goyal, and Railway Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw.

— Both sides deliberated upon the six pillars identified under ISMR, which include “digitalisation, skill development, sustainability, healthcare and medicine, and advanced manufacturing and connectivity.

— The leaders also discussed plans for commemorating the 60th Anniversary of diplomatic relations between India and Singapore, alongside regional and global cooperation, including ASEAN & G20 developments.

— The four ministers also called on Singapore President Thamman Shanmugaratnam and PM Lawrence Wong. With President Thamman, the leaders discussed “boosting the India-Singapore Strategic Partnership by focusing on key areas like digitalisation, Green Initiatives, Skill Development,” the Finance Ministry said in a post on X.

Points to Ponder: 

— What are the areas of cooperation between India and Singapore?

— What are the joint military exercises and defence cooperation agreements between India and Singapore?

— How do cultural exchanges strengthen the relationship between India and Singapore?

— What are the challenges in India-Singapore bilateral relations?

Post Read Question:

(4) What is the correct sequence of occurrence of the following cities in South-East Asia as one proceeds from south to north? (UPSC CSE 2014)

1. Bangkok

2. Hanoi

3. Jakarta

4. Singapore

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 4 – 2 – 1 – 3 

(b) 3 – 2 – 4 – 1

(c) 3 – 4 – 1 – 2

(d) 4 – 3 – 2 – 1

Express Network

ISRO finalises design of humanoid skull crucial to Gaganyaan mission next year 

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of importance and Science

Mains Examination: GS-III: Science and Technology- Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology; Awareness in the fields of IT and space.

What’s the ongoing story- Before launching astronauts on the Gaganyaan mission next year, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) will send a humanoid robot, Vyommitra, into space to test spacecraft safety.

Prerequisites: 

— What is the Gaganyaan mission?

— Read about the Indian Space Research Organisation.

— What do preparations for the human space flight include?

Key takeaways: 

— The humanoid’s skull, designed at ISRO’s Thiruvananthapuram unit, weighs 800 grams and measures 200 mm x 220 mm, made from a high-strength aluminum alloy to endure pressure and vibration.

— Vyommitra will resemble the upper human body, featuring movable arms, face, and neck equipped with sensors to perform human-like functions and assess the impacts of space travel.

— The Vyommitra will have multiple degrees of freedom, meaning its parts would be able to move in different directions.

— The Gaganyaan mission, India’s first attempt at sending humans into space, is scheduled for next year. But before that two uncrewed preparatory missions, Gaganyaan-1 (G1) and Gaganyaan-2 (G2), would be flown, the first one later this year.

— G1, scheduled for launch in December, will mainly test the safe re-entry of the spacecraft and its orientation upon its dive into the sea. The G2 mission will carry Vyommitra inside the human-rated pressurised crew module, where the astronauts would be seated in the actual flight. The robot will be tasked with recording all parameters that will be used to study the impacts of the flight on humans.

— The Gaganyaan mission will carry three Indian astronauts into space, about 400 km from the Earth’s surface, for three days.

For Your Information: 

— The Gaganyaan mission is India’s first manned space flight that is currently scheduled for next year. The space capsule for Gaganyaan has the capacity to carry three astronauts, but it has not yet been finalised whether two or three astronauts would be sent on that mission.

— Only three countries — the United States, Russia and China — have sent human spaceflights till now, though over 600 astronauts, including over 70 women, from close to 50 different countries have gone into space.

— The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) had started planning for a human spaceflight mission way back in 2004 but the real possibilities opened up only after the success of Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan missions, and the development of the GSLV rocket in the last one decade.

— The Gaganyaan mission was originally scheduled for a launch in 2022, to coincide with 75 years of India’s independence, but that schedule got derailed because of the Covid pandemic.

Points to Ponder: 

— What are the key features of India’s Manned Mission to Space?

— What is the significance of the Gaganyaan mission? 

— What are the other important space missions of ISRO? 

Post Read Question:

Prelims

(5) With reference to the LVM-3, consider the following statements:

1. It is capable of placing the 4 tonne class satellites of the GSAT series into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits.

2. It is a two stage launch vehicle.

3. It uses only solid propellant.

How many of the statements given above are correct?

(a) Only one

(b) Only two

(c) All three

(d) None

Mains

What is the significance of the Gaganyaan Mission? Discuss about the Test Vehicle Abort Mission-1 (TV-D1).

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

 Express View on Gaganyaan: Sky’s not the limit

What the success of Gaganyaan could mean for Indian science

Met upgrade in pipeline, focus on extreme weather, local predictions

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: GS-II, III: Government policies and interventions, Environment

What’s the ongoing story- A new mission to improve weather forecasting, with a budget of at least Rs 10,000 crore is expected to be launched soon, The Indian Express has learnt. It is likely to be several times bigger than Monsoon Mission, launched in 2012, that has resulted in a noticeable uplift in the capabilities of the India Meteorological Department (IMD).

Prerequisites: 

— What is the function of IMD?

— What are the extreme weather events?

— What is Monsoon Mission?

Key takeaways: 

— Though the IMD’s weather forecasts have increased significantly over the past decade, it has struggled to provide accurate predictions at the local level. A recent report by The Indian Express showed how the IMD’s rainfall forecasts for Mumbai were way off the mark on about 40 per cent of the days in July.

— The science of weather forecasting has uncertainties built into it. The more specific a forecast — either over a small area, or during a small time-window — the greater is the uncertainty. Some of these uncertainties can be offset by installing denser network of measuring instruments, collecting more data, doing more computations and developing better simulation models.

— Extreme weather events are even more difficult to predict. In the last decade or so, extreme events, under the influence of climate change, have become more frequent and intense, and also more erratic. Events expected to occur only once in 50 or 100 years, have been happening with far greater regularity.

— To improve the monitoring of atmospheric parameters over India, the mission is expected to see the deployment of a few more dedicated weather satellites. India already has three satellites in space — INSAT-3D, INSAT-3DR and INSAT-3DS —that are used mainly for meteorological observations… These satellites would be equipped with latest technologies and designed to produce very high-resolution data to feed into weather forecasts.

— The new mission would also focus on greater integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML) in weather forecasting. 

For Your Information: 

— IMD acknowledges that its forecasts, particularly the city-specific forecasts, have not been perfect, but says its accuracy levels are improving. “IMD’s forecasting systems have improved by 40-50 per cent in the last decade compared to previous years. 

— But it needs to be understood that weather forecasting is a nonlinear science, which means that unlike other sciences, weather has greater unpredictability,” said Mrutyunjay Mohapatra, Director General of Meteorology

Points to Ponder: 

— What are the challenges faced by IMD?

— How unpredictability of extreme weather events is a challenge for disaster management?

— How AI can help in better weather prediction?

Post Read Question:

(6) With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC CSE 2017)

1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

IMD rain forecasts for Mumbai wrong by 42% in July. What explains these extreme misses?

 

Explained 

What is vaccine-derived polio, how to prevent it

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance and General Science

Mains Examination: GS-III: Science and Health

What’s the ongoing story- A two-year-old child from Meghalaya’s West Garo Hills district reportedly tested positive for polio — a highly infectious, debilitating, and possibly fatal viral disease that once afflicted millions but now has largely been consigned to the history books due to the development of an effective vaccine.

Prerequisites: 

— What is polio?

— Read about the Pulse Polio Programme.

— Know about the oral polio vaccine (OPV).

Key takeaways: 

— Officials from the Union health ministry said that the case was “vaccine-derived”, and does not jeopardise India’s polio free status. Nonetheless, officials are on high alert to ensure that the infection does not spread.

— A vaccine-derived poliovirus is a strain related to the weakened version of the live poliovirus contained in the oral polio vaccine (OPV). ‘Polio drops’ are by and large safe — they have led to the successful eradication of the infection in most countries — but on rare occasions can trigger the disease in children with weak immune systems.

— Dr T Jacob John, former professor of virology at the Christian Medical College Vellore said that the OPV can lead to vaccine-derived infections in one of two ways.

1. In some cases, the weakened virus can continue circulating from child to child, gaining back its ability to transmit quickly, and then cause severe infection every time it spreads.

2. The virus in the vaccine can also cause chronic infection in children with weakened immune systems, replicating in their gut for years and slowly gaining its ability to cause severe infection. This is what seems to have happened in the Meghalaya case.

— India’s last reported case of wild poliovirus (i.e. the infection caused by the naturally occurring version of the virus) was detected in West Bengal’s Howrah district in 2011. India was declared polio-free in 2014 after successfully preventing any wild polio infections for three years. However, during this period vaccine derived polio cases have continued to be reported. 

— These cases do not affect India’s polio-free status — only the detection of the wild poliovirus will change that.

— The OPV is extremely effective in preventing the spread of poliovirus from one individual to another. Moreover, the ease of administering the oral drops, led to the OPV becoming the mainstay of the global polio eradication programme. That said, one of its drawbacks is that in rare cases it can not only trigger the infection, but can also lead to its spread to others.

— To prevent future outbreaks, high levels of immunisation must be maintained. Moreover, the IPV can only extend the protection to the immunised individual, and since it does not contain any live virus, there is no possibility of vaccine-derived polio.

For Your Information: 

— According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “Polio is a crippling and potentially deadly disease that affects the nervous system… Because the virus lives in the faeces (poop) of an infected person, people infected with the disease can spread it to others when they do not wash their hands well after defecating (pooping). People can also be infected if they drink water or eat food contaminated with infected feces.”

Points to Ponder: 

— What are the different strains of polio?

— Why was the oral polio vaccine rolled out in 2016?

— What are the issues and concerns associated with the oral polio vaccine?

— What are the benefits of an inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) regime?

— What are the concerts related to the injectable polio vaccine (IPV)?

Post Read Question:

(7) With reference to the vaccine-derived polio infection, consider the following statements:

1. It is a strain related to the weakened version of the live poliovirus contained in the oral polio vaccine.

2. No cases of vaccine-derived polio infection have been reported in India.

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

Rare polio case reported in Meghalaya: What is it and is this a cause of concern?

Two-new US-India agreements: a short history of growing defence ties

UPSC Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: GS-II, GS-III: Bilateral agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests; Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests

What’s the ongoing story- India and the US have signed a Security of Supply Arrangement (SOSA) and Memorandum of Agreement regarding the Assignment of Liaison Officers, the latest in a series of bilateral military agreements that have enhanced defence and security cooperation between the two countries over the past decade.

Prerequisites: 

— What is the US-India Roadmap for Defence Industrial Cooperation 2023?

— Read about the various defence agreements between the US and India.

Key takeaways: 

— During Defence Minister Rajnath Singh’s four-day official visit that concluded on Sunday (August 25), the partner nations agreed to advance priority co-production projects including jet engines, unmanned platforms, munitions, and ground mobility systems under the 2023 US-India Roadmap for Defence Industrial Cooperation.

— Two new agreements

1. SOSA: Under SOSA, the US and India will provide reciprocal priority support to each other for goods and services that promote national defence. It will “enable both countries to acquire the industrial resources they need from one another to resolve unanticipated supply chain disruptions to meet national security needs”, the US Department of Defense (DoD) said in a statement.

— India is the 18th SOSA partner of the US. While SOSA, according to the DoD, are an important mechanism to strengthen interoperability with US defence trade partners, it is legally non-binding. The DoD has been working to conclude another agreement with India, the Reciprocal Defence Procurement (RDP) Agreement, which will be binding.

2. MoU On Liaison Officers: The Memorandum of Agreement regarding the Assignment of Liaison Officers is a progression on a decision taken earlier to increase information-sharing between India and the US, and to post Indian armed forces officers in key strategic US Commands. India will deploy the first Liaison Officer to the US Special Operations Command headquarters in Florida.

— The roadmap for defence industrial cooperation released last year envisioned the conclusion of SOSA and the RDP Agreement. The US endorsed the integration of the Indian defence industry into global supply chains, and extended support to India to develop naval and maritime infrastructure to create an Indo-Pacific regional hub for ship and aircraft repair and maintenance.

— iCET: In January 2023, the US-India initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) was discussed to expand the strategic technology partnership and defence industrial cooperation.

For Your Information: 

—  In 2002, India and the US had signed the General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) to facilitate sharing of military information. Between 2016 and 2020, the two sides signed four more agreements.

— In 2016, the US designated India as a Major Defence Partner. Commensurate with this designation, in 2018, India was elevated to Strategic Trade Authorisation tier 1 status, which gave it licence-free access to a range of military and dual-use technologies regulated by the US Department of Commerce.

— The Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) of 2016 established the basic terms, conditions, and procedures for reciprocal provision of logistic support, supplies, and services between the two militaries.

— In 2018, COMCASA, an India-specific version of the Communications and Information Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA), was signed to secure military communication between the countries, facilitate access to advanced defence systems, and enable India to optimally utilise its existing US-origin platforms.

— The Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) of 2020 aimed to facilitate the sharing of military information including maps, nautical charts, and other unclassified imagery and data.

Points to Ponder: 

— What are the areas of cooperation between India and the US?

— What is the India-US Defence Acceleration Ecosystem (INDUS-X)?

— What are the challenges to India-US bilateral ties?

Post Read Question:

(8) Consider the following statements with regard to the Security of Supply Arrangement (SOSA):

1. India is the 18th SOSA partner of the US.

2. It is legally non-binding.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

BECA, and the importance of 3 foundational pacts of India-US defence cooperation

 

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