UPSC Key: Birthright Citizenship, Indus Waters Treaty and Paris Agreement Pull-Out

Dhaka vows to pursue Hasina’s return, may seek global support

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies II: India and its neighbourhood- relations.

What’s the ongoing story: BANGLADESH’S INTERIM government on Tuesday said it will continue its efforts to bring deposed Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina back from India and will seek international intervention if necessary.

Key Points to Ponder:

• Bangladesh’s request for the extradition of former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina from India and its diplomatic implications-Know in detail

• What are the legal framework governing extradition between India and Bangladesh?

• How does the political transition in Bangladesh and its impact on India’s foreign policy underscores the importance of neighbourhood diplomacy?

• Role of external influences in shaping domestic policies in neighbouring countries like Bangladesh-Comment

• Why India-Bangladesh relations is important in the context of regional stability and connectivity?

• Do you think that India should interfere in Bangladesh’s internal conflict?

Key Takeaways:

• Law Adviser Asif Nazrul told reporters at the Secretariat in Dhaka that if New Delhi refuses to return Ms. Hasina, it would constitute a violation of the extradition treaty between Bangladesh and India, the Daily Star newspaper reported.

• Hasina, 77, has been living in India since August 5 last year when she fled Bangladesh following a massive student-led protest that toppled her Awami League’s (AL) 16-year regime. Bangladesh’s International Crimes Tribunal (ICT) has issued arrest warrants for Hasina and several former Cabinet ministers, advisers, and military and civil officials for “crimes against humanity and genocide”.

• Last year, Dhaka sent a diplomatic note to New Delhi seeking the extradition of Hasina.

• The relations between India and Bangladesh came under strain after the interim government headed by Muhammad Yunus came to power.

• India has been expressing concerns over attacks on minorities, especially Hindus, in that country.

• In recent weeks, Hasina has also accused the Yunus-led interim government of perpetrating” genocide” and failing to protect minorities, especially Hindus, since her ouster.

Do You Know:

• The recent turmoil in Bangladesh resulted in the ouster of former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and the establishment of an interim government led by Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus. This event is considered a significant turning point in Bangladesh’s history and has introduced new dynamics in regional politics. As a neighbouring country of India, Bangladesh has always played a crucial role in India’s “neighbourhood first” policy.

• Bangladesh has been a key ally to India since Sheikh Hasina came to power in 2009. From eradicating anti-India terrorist groups which operated out of safe havens in Bangladesh to facilitating greater economic, social, and cultural ties, Hasina’s tenure has fostered a healthy relationship between New Delhi and Dhaka.

• UNDER THE provisions of the India-Bangladesh extradition treaty, extradition may be refused if the offence is one of a “political character”. Another clause said a person convicted of an extradition offence may not be extradited unless the person was sentenced to imprisonment or other form of detention for a period of four months or more.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Why India-Bangladesh extradition treaty does not imply that New Delhi must hand over Sheikh Hasina

UPSC Practice Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
1. Which international organization has Bangladesh approached to issue a red notice for Sheikh Hasina’s arrest?
a) United Nations
b) International Criminal Court
c) Interpol
d) Amnesty International

FRONT PAGE

Trump to end birthright citizenship, will hit Indians in US; 18 states sue

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.

What’s the ongoing story: Starting his second term with a flurry of executive orders, US President Donald Trump has sought to revoke birthright citizenship – automatic citizenship of children born in the US to non-citizen parents.

Key Points to Ponder:

• What is birthright citizenship?

• Which U.S. Supreme Court case confirmed that children born in the U.S. to immigrant parents are entitled to U.S. citizenship?

• The term ‘jus soli’ refers to what?

• Which organization has filed a lawsuit challenging President Trump’s executive order on birthright citizenship?

• Discuss the constitutional basis of birthright citizenship in the United States.

• How does President Trump’s executive order challenge the constitutional basis of birthright citizenship.

• Analyse the impact of ending birthright citizenship on immigrant communities in the U.S., with a specific focus on the Indian-American community.

• Evaluate the role of the judiciary in interpreting constitutional amendments related to citizenship.

• How might the U.S. Supreme Court’s historical rulings influence the outcome of legal challenges to the executive order of birthright citizenship?

• Examine the international perspective on birthright citizenship.

• Assess the political and social implications of modifying birthright citizenship laws.

Key Takeaways:

• Among the first few ‘Presidential Actions’ listed by the White House on its website, the order titled ‘Protecting the Meaning and Value of American Citizenship’ specifies that those who were born in the US “but not subject to the jurisdiction thereof” are excluded from birthright citizenship.

• The Indian-American community, which is one of the fastest-growing immigrant populations in the US, will be profoundly impacted by this change as and when it comes through.

• If such a change is to occur, it will potentially impact children born in the US to H-1B visa holders, Green Card holders (lawful permanent residents), temporary visa holders such as those on student or visitor visas, and undocumented immigrants.

• Such a move will discourage many Indian professionals, students, and families from seeking opportunities in the US, opting for countries like Canada or Australia instead.

• According to official statistics of the US Census Bureau, Indian Americans number over 5.4 million as of 2024, comprising 1.47 per cent of the US population.
—Of these, around two-thirds are first-generation immigrants, while the rest are US-born citizens, data show.

• If there is a change in policy in line with Trump’s order, children born to Indian nationals who are on temporary work visas (like the H-1B visa) or waiting for the Green Card would no longer automatically acquire US citizenship.
—This will impact hundreds of thousands of children born to Indian immigrants in the US each year, and put families in jeopardy, say immigration experts based in India.

• US-born children could no longer petition to bring their parents to the US after turning 21 if they do not get birthright citizenship. The policy will also curb “birth tourism” from countries like India and Mexico, a practice of women travelling to the US specifically to give birth, so their children can claim citizenship.

Do You Know:

• Under birthright citizenship, anyone born on American soil is automatically granted US citizenship, regardless of the citizenship or immigration status of the parents.
—This provision was enacted in 1868 and was designed to extend citizenship to all persons born in the US.

• The new order would deny US citizenship, including passports, to those children born in the US starting 30 days from now, if at least one parent isn’t an American citizen.

• According to the White House statement, among the categories of individuals “born in the US and not subject to the jurisdiction thereof”, include:
(1) when that person’s mother was unlawfully present in the US and the father was not a US citizen or lawful permanent resident at the time of said person’s birth, or
(2) when that person’s mother’s presence in the US at the time of said person’s birth was lawful but temporary (such as, but not limited to, visiting the US under the auspices of the Visa Waiver Program or visiting on a student, work, or tourist visa) and the father was not a US citizen or lawful permanent resident at the time of said person’s birth.

• Children born to Indian students on non-immigrant visas would face challenges in securing US citizenship, at a time when Indian students make up one of the largest groups of international students in the US.

• While Trump has signed the executive order, it will face legal hurdles. Immigrant rights advocates in several US states are expected to file legal challenges to the decree. They contend that birthright citizenship arises from the Constitution’s 14th Amendment, which was ratified in 1868.

• Historically, the US Supreme Court has upheld birthright citizenship, including in the landmark case United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), where the Court ruled that a child born in the US to non-citizen parents was still a US citizen. Immediately after Trump signed the order, immigrants’ rights advocates sued his administration. The lawsuit charges them with flouting the Constitution’s dictates, Congressional intent, and long standing Supreme Court precedent.

• The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has also expressed concern about the constitutionality of Trump’s executive order. In a statement, the ACLU has highlighted the potential for mass deportations, family separations, and other human rights abuses under Trump’s immigration policies. Legal challenges will shape the trajectory of the policy in the days to come.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍22 Democratic-led states sue to stop Trump’s birthright citizenship order

UPSC Practice Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
2. Which amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees birthright citizenship?
a) First Amendment
b) Tenth Amendment
c) Fourteenth Amendment
d) Nineteenth Amendment

Trump pardons 1,500 charged for 2021 Capitol riot, says end of ‘grave injustice’

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests

What’s the ongoing story: As new US President Donald Trump pardoned all 1,500 plus people on charges of insurrection for riots on January 6, 2021 at US Capitol, hundreds of them were freed from US prisons on Tuesday as judges began dismissing dozens of pending cases.

Key Points to Ponder:

• Know the constitutional powers of the U.S. President concerning the issuance of pardons.

• How does President Trump’s clemency for January 6 rioters align with or challenge pardon powers?

• Discuss the potential implications of President Trump’s pardons on the U.S. justice system’s efforts to prosecute individuals involved in the January 6 Capitol riot.

• What message does President Trump’s pardons convey to law enforcement agencies and the public?

• Evaluate the impact of pardoning leaders of far-right groups, such as the Proud Boys and Oath Keepers, on domestic security and the potential for future political violence in the United States.

• Assess the ethical considerations of granting clemency to individuals convicted of assaulting law enforcement officers during the Capitol riot.

• Examine the international ramifications of President Trump’s mass pardons for January 6 rioters.

Key Takeaways:

• The Federal Bureau of Prisons confirmed the freeing of 211 people on Tuesday after Trump signed an executive order pardoning all the accused in the riots cases.

• The sweeping pardons Trump announced with the stroke of a pen on his first day in office on January 20 includes clemency to those who were caught on camera attacking police and far right extremist leaders orchestrating violent plot to stop the peaceful transfer of power after his 2020 election loss.

• Trump’s sweeping pardons to all the over 1,500 people accused in Capitol riots has garnered condemnation from police, which fought with the violent mob, their family members and lawmakers, some of whom belong to the new president’s Republican party.

• Among the 211 freed from prisons on Tuesday was Stewart Rhodes, who had been jailed for 18 years after being found guilty of plotting to use force to prevent Congress from certifying former President Joe Biden’s victory in the 2020 election against Trump.

• According to AP, more than 100 police officers were injured in the mob attack on January 6 at the US Capitol and even Trump’s Vice President pick JD Vance had recently said that rioters who assaulted police officers “obviously” shouldn’t be pardoned.

Do You Know:

• The Capitol in Washington DC was placed under lockdown Wednesday after hundreds of Trump supporters stormed the historic building and
wreaked havoc in an attempt to stall the certification of the election results.

• A raucous group of demonstrators — many of whom were waving ‘Trump 2020’ flags and wearing T-shirts and hats with the president’s signature ‘Keep America Great’ tagline printed — entered the second-floor lobby of the building right outside the Senate chamber, the doors of which were being guarded by law enforcement officials.

• The mob managed to get past the guards and enter the Senate chamber, where just moments earlier the election results were being certified. According to the Guardian, one of the rioters was seen climbing up on the dias and yelling, “Trump won that election.”

• The protesters roamed through the halls freely, some even entering and looting the offices used by House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and other lawmakers. But the lawmakers from the Senate and the House of Representatives had already been evacuated.

• The Trump supporters stopped to take photographs and film themselves as they made their way around the building. Videos show people breaking windows and pushing past barricades to forcefully enter rooms and offices in the Capitol.
Four hours after the breach, officials announced that the demonstrators had been cleared out of the building and the Capitol was secure. Senators were escorted back into the Senate chamber to complete the certification of electoral college votes.

• Hours before the rioters stormed the US Capitol, huge crowds of Trump supporters had already filled the streets to protest against the certification of Biden’s victory in the 2020 presidential election. Many had even camped out overnight to catch a glimpse of President Trump and his top advisors and family members at the ‘Save America Rally’ that took place on Wednesday at the Ellipse, a park near the White House.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍An Expert Explains the US Capitol Hill riot: anatomy of an insurrection

UPSC Practice Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
3. What was the primary justification President Trump provided for issuing the pardons to the January 6 rioters?
a) They were wrongfully convicted
b) Their sentences were excessive
c) They acted in self-defense
d) They were unaware of the law

EXPRESS NETWORK

Neutral expert vindicates India stand on Indus treaty: MEA

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies II: India and its neighborhood- relations.

What’s the ongoing story: A World Bank-appointed neutral expert has backed New Delhi’s position on the framework to resolve certain disputes between India and Pakistan on Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects.

Key Points to Ponder:

• Know the significance of the Indus Waters Treaty in the context of India-Pakistan relations.

• How does the recent decision by the World Bank-appointed Neutral Expert impact the Indus Waters treaty’s implementation?

• Analyse the role of international organizations, such as the World Bank, in mediating transboundary water disputes.

• What are the implications of the Neutral Expert’s decision for future hydroelectric projects in the Indus basin?

• Evaluate the potential environmental and socio-economic effects of the Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects on the regions of Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan-administered Kashmir.

• Examine the legal mechanisms provided within the Indus Waters Treaty for dispute resolution.

• Assess the challenges and opportunities that arise from the construction of hydroelectric projects in shared river basins, with specific reference to the Indus River system.

Key Takeaways:

• While India has been pressing for resolution of the issues by the neutral expert as mandated under the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) between the two countries, Pakistan has been backing the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague to resolve them.

• On Tuesday India welcomed Lino’s decision. In a statement, the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) said, “India welcomes the decision given by the Neutral Expert under Paragraph 7 of Annexure F to the Indus Waters Treaty, 1960.

• The decision upholds and vindicates India’s stand that all seven (07) questions that were referred to the Neutral Expert, in relation to the Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects, are differences falling within his competence under the Treaty.”

• “It has been India’s consistent and principled position that the Neutral Expert alone has the competence under the Treaty to decide these differences. Having upheld his own competence, which comports with India’s view, the Neutral Expert will now proceed to the next (merits) phase of his proceedings. This phase will culminate in a final decision on the merits of each of the seven differences,” the MEA statement said.

• It said, “Being committed to preserving the sanctity and integrity of the Treaty, India will continue to participate in the Neutral Expert process so that the differences are resolved in a manner consistent with the provisions of the Treaty, which does not provide for parallel proceedings on the same set of issues. For this reason, India does not recognise or participate in the illegally constituted Court of Arbitration proceedings.”

• The Ministry reiterated that India and Pakistan remain in touch on the matter of modification and review of the Indus Waters Treaty, under Article XII (3) of the Treaty.

• On Monday (January 20, 2025), the Neutral Expert issued a statement on his competence to address certain issues related to projects under the Indus Waters Treaty.

Do You Know:

• Signed in 1960, the Indus Waters Treaty sought to ensure equitable water distribution amid growing tensions between India and Pakistan. India was granted unrestricted access to the water from the ‘Eastern Rivers’ — the Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi — and Pakistan retained rights to the waters from the ‘Western Rivers’ Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab.

• India is constructing two hydroelectric power projects—the Kishenganga HE project on Kishenganga river, a tributary of Jhelum, and the Ratle Hydroelectric project on Chenab river.

• Pakistan has objected to the construction of these two projects. In 2015, Pakistan requested the appointment of a Neutral Expert to examine its technical objections to India’s Kishenganga and Ratle Hydro Electric Projects (HEPs).

• In 2016, Pakistan unilaterally retracted this request and proposed that a Court of Arbitration adjudicate its objections. This unilateral action by Pakistan is in contravention of the graded mechanism of dispute settlement envisaged by Article IX of IWT.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍India issues notice to Pakistan seeking review of Indus Waters Treaty: What to know

UPSC Practice Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
4. According to the Indus Waters Treaty, which rivers are allocated to India for unrestricted use?
a) Indus, Jhelum, Chenab
b) Ravi, Beas, Sutlej
c) Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra
d) Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery

ECONOMY

Trump policy: Fix ‘unfair, unbalanced trade, counter currency manipulation’

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests

What’s the ongoing story: US President Donald Trump on Monday instructed his commerce and treasury departments to investigate the causes of America’s “large and persistent” annual trade deficits in goods, as well as the “economic and national security” implications of such deficits, according to an official document titled ‘America First Trade Policy’ released by the White House on Monday.

Key Points to Ponder:

• Discuss the primary objectives of the “America First Trade Policy” introduced by President Donald Trump.

• Analyse the potential economic implications of imposing tariffs on neighboring countries, specifically Canada and Mexico, as indicated in President Trump’s trade policy memorandum.

• Evaluate the role of federal agencies, such as the Commerce and Treasury departments, in investigating and remedying trade deficits under the directives of the “America First Trade Policy.”

• Examine the impact of trade policy announcements on global financial markets, with reference to the rally in global stocks and the decline in the U.S. dollar’s value following President Trump’s memorandum.

• Assess the effectiveness of trade policy reviews and public consultations, such as the planned 2026 review of the USMCA, in achieving fair and balanced trade agreements?

Key Takeaways:

• This holds significance for India, which recorded a $50 billion trade surplus with the US in 2023 compared to $25 billion in 2019. Indian trade policy researchers have highlighted that India’s consumer goods exports, such as pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, and marine products, are particularly vulnerable to US tariffs due to the trade imbalance.

• During his first term, Trump had invoked national security provisions to impose 25 per cent tariffs on steel and 10 per cent on aluminium from India and other countries and had revoked the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), a preferential trade agreement which benefited India the most.

• Trump also directed the United States Trade Representative (USTR) to review existing US trade agreements and sectoral trade agreements and to “recommend any revisions that may be necessary” or appropriate to achieve or maintain the general level of reciprocal and mutually advantageous concessions with respect to free trade agreement partner countries.

• Notably, India, the US and 12 other members including Australia, Indonesia and Japan signed a Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF), a regional agreement to increase economic integration and cooperation in the Indo-Pacific. India is a signatory of three pillars of IPEF: supply chains, clean economy, and fair economy.

Do You Know:

• The White House instructed the USTR to review the economic and trade agreement between the US and China to determine whether the latter is adhering to its commitments under the agreement.

• China’s exports gained momentum in December, pushing year-on-year growth in 2024 up by 5.9 per cent to $3.58 trillion, according to customs data released by Beijing on Monday. Imports, however, grew at a slower pace of 1.1 per cent to $2.59 trillion, resulting in a trade surplus of $992.2 billion for the year.

• The White House has indicated that US measures to address the trade gap with China will extend beyond tariffs.

• According to the US Treasury, China should pursue more market-based economic reforms to bolster growth and confidence in its currency.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍AMERICA FIRST TRADE POLICY

UPSC Practice Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
5. Which international agreement was set for a public consultation review in 2026 as part of the trade policy memorandum?
a) North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
b) United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)
c) Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)
d) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

EXPLAINED

What WHO, Paris pullouts mean

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests

What’s the ongoing story: United States President Donald Trump signed an executive order to withdraw from the World Health Organisation (WHO) on his very first day in office. US President Donald Trump decided to withdraw the United States from the Paris Agreement again — having first done so in 2017 — through an executive order signed on Monday.

Key Points to Ponder:

• What does the executive order say?

• Know the Paris Agreement’s objective.

• Why the second withdrawal could have a more far-reaching impact on global climate action than the first?

• How did the WHO react to Trump’s move?

• What will be the financial implication?

• Will India be impacted?

• How can member states withdraw from the WHO?

• What is the role of India and the global south?

Key Takeaways:

• The order said the reasons for withdrawing were WHO’s “mishandling of the COVID-19 pandemic”, “failure to adopt urgently needed reforms”, “inability to demonstrate independence from the inappropriate political influence of WHO member states”, and for continued demand of “unfairly onerous payments from the United States.”

• The move does not come as a surprise considering Trump had threatened to withdraw in his last term too, and officially notified the UN General Secretary of the decision in 2020. Nonetheless, health experts are concerned about the cut in funding and expertise that the WHO may experience in the coming years.

• US President Donald Trump decided to withdraw the United States from the Paris Agreement again — having first done so in 2017. The US is the world’s second-largest emitter of greenhouse gases. The Paris Agreement’s objective of keeping global warming below a certain level cannot be achieved without its full participation in the common effort to reduce emissions.

• In many ways, this second withdrawal could have a more far-reaching impact on global climate action than the first. The decision has come at the start of Trump’s second term and is accompanied by a slew of related decisions that threaten to dismantle the entire US climate policy.

• Another major implication for developing countries will be a further squeeze in funds available for climate action. Trump has ordered an immediate revocation of the US International Climate Finance Plan, an April 2021 announcement that promised to scale up US contribution to $11 billion annually by 2024. Last year, the US claimed its preliminary estimates as suggesting that this pledge was met.

Do You Know:

• The WHO is a UN body working on global health. It works with countries to strengthen their primary health care, its guidelines help prepare government policies, and it helps organise programmes to tackle specific diseases.

• Trump’s executive order highlights four key things that will happen as the US exits from the global health organisation:
—One, any transfer of US funds and resources to the WHO will be paused.
—Two, all US government personnel or contractors working in any capacity with the WHO will be recalled.
—Three, the United States will “identify credible and transparent United States and international partners to assume necessary activities previously undertaken by the WHO.”
—Four, and importantly, the United States will cease negotiations towards the pandemic treaty the WHO is working on. The accord aims to better prepare countries to respond to pandemics, create a framework for global cooperation if a pandemic happens, and develop mechanisms for equitably sharing medical countermeasures such as drugs and vaccines. “… actions taken to effectuate such agreement and amendments will have no binding force on the United States,” the executive order says.

• Withdrawal of the United States is likely to have a huge financial impact on the WHO, with the agency receiving around a fifth of its funds from the country. This is one of the points of contention for President Trump, with the executive order stating: “China, with a population of 1.4 billion, has 300 percent of the population of the United States, yet contributes nearly 90 percent less to the WHO.”

• WHO’s funding essentially comes in two ways — the mandatory assessed contributions from all its member countries, and the voluntary contributions raised from various countries and organisations. Over the years, the assessed contributions have remained stagnant and now cover less than 20% of the organisation’s budget.

• In assessed contributions, the United States is the biggest payer, accounting for 22.5% of the contributions, followed by China at 15%. Of the total USD 578 million assessed contributions, the United States pays approximately USD 138 million and China USD 87.6 million.

• In voluntary contributions, while the US is still the biggest donor, accounting for around 13% (USD 356.3 million) of the total contributions in 2023, China accounted for only about 0.14% of the total contributions (USD 3.9 million). The second biggest voluntary contributor was the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

• The first withdrawal, which came six months into the Trump presidency, was rather short-lived. The US had ratified the Paris Agreement just a few months before Trump had become President. It has a provision that does not allow any country to withdraw within the first three years of ratification. There is also a one-year wait time for the withdrawal to come into effect. So, by the time the US withdrawal became effective, it was almost time to rejoin, with Biden winning the election.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍US exit from WHO among first orders, fieldwork in India may be affected

UPSC Previous Year Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
6. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

 

PRELIMS ANSWER KEY

1. (c)  2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5.(b) 6.(b)

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