Here are some of the essential key terms from the last week’s news headlines or between the lines categorised as per the relevance to the UPSC-CSE syllabus along with the MCQs followed. Penumbral lunar eclipse WHY IN NEWS? — Following the hybrid solar eclipse on April 20, skywatchers in many parts of the world, including India,caught a glimpse of a penumbral lunar eclipse in action on Friday, May 5. KEY TAKEAWAYS — Lunar eclipses are not nearly as rare as solar eclipses. Once or twice or more times every year, the Earth, the Moon and the Sun line up in just the right way to create the “shadowplay” that we call an eclipse, according to NASA. — The reason this does not happen every month is because the Moon’s orbit around our planet is tilted relative to Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This means that the cosmic alignment does not happen each time the Moon makes a full orbit around our planet. Penumbral lunar eclipse — The May 5 eclipse was a penumbral lunar eclipse. What does that mean? During a penumbral eclipse, the Moon only travels through the Earth’s penumbra, which is the faint outer part of its shadow. Due to this, the Moon dims so slightly that you might actually miss it unless you pay close attention. — If the full moon was exactly on the opposite side of the Earth with respect to the Sun, there would be a total umbral eclipse of the Sun, completely blocking it out. — But on May 5, the full Moon was south of the Earth’s umbra or its dark shadow, according to EarthSky. This means that no part of the Moon was completely darkened by the Earth’s umbra. — Unlike other kinds of eclipses, penumbral lunar eclipses are subtle events that are usually difficult to observe unless you pay very close attention. During the May 5 eclipse, the Moon’s brightness was reduced, but most of its disc remained illuminated to some extent. — Of course, unlike a solar eclipse, lunar eclipses are safe to view with the naked eye and with other viewing equipment. You can make use of binoculars or a telescope to get a better view of the eclipse. How does a lunar eclipse happen? — Lunar eclipses only occur during a full moon. When the Earth is situated precisely between the Moon and the Sun. the Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon’s surface. This dims or obscures the sunlight that is reflected by the Moon. Sometimes, this dimming or obscuration can cause the Moon to turn slightly red. Why does the Moon turn red during a lunar eclipse? — During some lunar eclipses, parts of the Moon obscured by the Earth’s shadow take on a reddish tinge. This is due to a phenomenon known as Rayleigh scattering. Essentially, during those times, the only sunlight reaching the Moon is the light that passes through our planet’s atmosphere first. Since our atmosphere scatters the bluer wavelengths of light, only the redder part of the light spectrum is let through. — It is unlikely that the Moon will turn red during the May 5 eclipse since it is a penumbral eclipse. What are the other kinds of lunar eclipses? — There are three different kinds of lunar eclipses—total, partial and penumbral. Penumbral is already discussed above. Total lunar eclipse — When the Moon moves into the inner part of the Earth’s shadow, or the umbra, it results in a total solar eclipse. Usually, a total lunar eclipse is when the Moon appears to turn a shade of red. As mentioned earlier, this is because of light passing through our planet, reaching the Moon and Rayleigh scattering. Partial lunar eclipse — When the Sun, Earth and Moon aline imperfectly, and only a portion of the Moon passes through the Earth’s umbra, you get a partial lunar eclipse. During a partial eclipse of the Moon, the dark shadow of the Earth will slowly grow on the Moon, before it starts receding. The dark shadow will not completely cover the Moon during a partial lunar eclipse. (Source: The penumbral lunar eclipse on May 5, and other eclipses: How do they work?) Point to ponder:‘Beaver blood moon’. Rings a bell in your mind, what is it? 1. MCQ: Tides occur in the oceans and seas due to which among the following? (2015) 1. Gravitational force of the Sun 2. Gravitational force of the Moon 3. Centrifugal force of the Earth Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Article 142 WHY IN NEWS? — A five-judge or constitution bench of the Supreme Court Monday (May 1) held that a court can directly grant divorce under Article 142 of the Constitution, in cases where the marriage has irretrievably broken down, without referring the parties to a family court first, where they must wait for 6-18 months for a decree of divorce by mutual consent. KEY TAKEAWAYS Khadija Khan Explains: What is Article 142 of the Constitution? — Article 142 provides a unique power to the Supreme Court, to do “complete justice” between the parties, where, at times, the law or statute may not provide a remedy. In those situations, the Court can extend itself to put an end to a dispute in a manner that would fit the facts of the case. Why did the Constituent Assembly feel the need to incorporate Article 142? The necessity for incorporating such an article into the Constitution was spelt out in the Constituent Assembly. The framers of the Constitution felt that this provision is of utmost significance to those people who have to suffer due to the delay in getting their necessary reliefs due to the disadvantaged position of the judicial system. According to Shri Thakur Das Bhargava, natural justice is above law, and the Supreme Court will also be above law, in the sense that, it shall have full right to pass any order that it considers just. This gives almost unlimited powers to the Supreme Court. Therefore, the Supreme Court shall exercise these powers and will not be deterred from doing justice by the provision of any rule or law, executive practice or executive circular or regulation etc. How have courts exercised this power? — While the powers under Article 142 are sweeping in nature, SC has defined its scope and extent through its judgments over time. — In the Prem Chand Garg case, the majority opinion demarcated the contours for the exercise of the Court’s powers under Article 142(1) by saying that an order to do complete justice between the parties “must not only be consistent with the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution, but it cannot even be inconsistent with the substantive provisions of the relevant statutory laws,” referring to laws made by Parliament. “Therefore, we do not think it would be possible to hold that Art. 142(1) confers upon this Court powers which can contravene the provisions of Article 32 (right to constitutional remedies),” it said. — The seven-judge bench in ‘Antulay’ upheld the 1962 ruling in ‘Prem Chand Garg.’ — Notably, in the Bhopal gas tragedy case (‘Union Carbide Corporation vs Union of India’), the SC in 1991 ordered UCC to pay $470 million in compensation for the victims of the tragedy. In doing so, the Bench highlighted the wide scope of Article 142 (1), adding that it found it “necessary to set at rest certain misconceptions in the arguments touching the scope of the powers of this Court under Article 142(1) of the Constitution”. — Deeming the power under Article 142 to be “at an entirely different level and of a different quality”, the court clarified that “prohibitions on limitations on provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot, ipso-facto, act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142”. Adding that it would be “wholly incorrect” to say that powers under Article 142 are subject to express statutory prohibitions, the court reasoned that doing so would convey the idea that statutory provisions override a constitutional provision. What is the criticism of Article 142 and how have courts countered it? — The sweeping nature of these powers has invited the criticism that they are arbitrary and ambiguous. It is further argued that the Court then has wide discretion, and this allows the possibility of its arbitrary exercise or misuse due to the absence of a standard definition for the term “complete justice”. Defining “complete justice” is a subjective exercise that differs in its interpretation from case to case. Thus, the court has to place checks on itself. — In 1998, the apex court in ‘Supreme Court Bar Association vs Union of India’ held that the powers under Article 142 are supplementary in nature and could not be used to supplant or override a substantive law and “build a new edifice where none existed earlier”. — The Court said that the powers conferred by Article 142 are curative and cannot be construed as powers “which authorise the court to ignore the substantive rights of a litigant while dealing with a cause pending before it”. Adding that Article 142 cannot be used to build a new edifice, ignoring statutory provisions dealing with a subject, the court also said that the provision cannot be used “to achieve something indirectly which cannot be achieved directly”. — More recently, in its 2006 ruling in ‘A. Jideranath vs Jubilee Hills Co-op House Building Society’, the Supreme Court discussed the scope of the power here, holding that in its exercise no injustice should be caused to a person not party to the case. — Another criticism of the powers under Article 142 is that unlike the legislature and the executive, the judiciary cannot be held accountable for its actions. The power has been criticised on grounds of the separation of powers doctrine, which says that the judiciary should not venture into areas of lawmaking and that it would invite the possibility of judicial overreach. — However, the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution was mindful of the wide-reaching nature of the powers and reserved it only for exceptional situations, which the existing law would have failed to anticipate. — Additionally, the apex court has imposed checks on its own power under Article 142. In 2006, the SC ruling by a five-judge Bench in ‘State of Karnataka vs Umadevi’ also clarified that “complete justice” under Article 142 means justice according to law and not sympathy, while holding that it will “not grant a relief which would amount to perpetuating an illegality encroaching into the legislative domain.” (Source: With Supreme Court’s ruling on divorce, a look at its powers under Article 142 – and their criticism by Khadija Khan, constitutionofindia.net, legalserviceindia.com ) Point to ponder: What is the relation between Article 142, judicial activism and judicial restraint? 2. MCQ: With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following? (2019) (a) The decisions taken by the Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law. (b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by laws made by the Parliament. (c) In the event of a grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare a Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet. (d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of the Union Legislature. World Press Freedom Index WHY IN NEWS? — In the 2023 edition of the World Press Freedom Index, released annually by the non-profit organisation Reporters Without Borders, India has slipped 11 places to the 161st rank out of 180 countries – ranking below countries such as Somalia (141), Pakistan (150), and Afghanistan (152). — The report released on Wednesday (May 4) was highlighted by associations of journalists, such as the Press Club of India. In March this year, the Union Minister of Information & Broadcasting Anurag Thakur had said in a written reply in the Lok Sabha that the Indian government “does not subscribe to its views and country rankings”, and does not agree to the conclusions drawn by the organisation. KEY TAKEAWAYS What is Reporters Without Borders? — Reporters Without Borders or Reporters Sans Frontiers (in French) is a global media watchdog headquartered in Paris, France, and it publishes a yearly report on press freedom in countries across the world. “We are neither a trade union nor a representative of media companies”, it states on its website. — “Founded in 1985… RSF is at the forefront of the defence and promotion of freedom of information. Recognised as a public interest organisation in France since 1995, RSF has consultative status with the United Nations, UNESCO, the Council of Europe and the International Organization of Francophonie (OIF),” it adds. — RSF has 134 correspondents around the world and is also involved in delivering daily updates on jailed journalists, instances of press censorship, etc. “We insure journalists on missions in high-risk areas and lend helmets and bulletproof vests. We assist them with legal action when they are victims of abuse, and assist reporters forced to flee with asylum applications,” it says. Perhaps one of its most visible initiatives is the World Press Freedom Index. How does it measure press freedom? — In its website’s Methodology section, RSF states, “Press freedom is defined as the ability of journalists as individuals and collectives to select, produce, and disseminate news in the public interest independent of political, economic, legal, and social interference and in the absence of threats to their physical and mental safety.” The index then compares levels of press freedom globally based on this definition. — It develops a score between 0 (for the worst possible performance in terms of securing press freedom) and 100 (the best possible score). This year, Norway scored 95.18 at the first position, North Korea was at 21.72 and India scored 36.62. A score below 70 falls under the ‘problematic’ category. — The scale of the scores given by the World Press Freedom Index. This score is based on two indicators: *a tally of abuses against media and journalists in connection with their work, arrived at by monitoring and analysing news stories on journalists being imprisoned or killed. *a qualitative analysis of the situation in each country or territory based on the responses of “press freedom specialists”, including journalists, researchers, academics and human rights defenders, to an RSF questionnaire available in 24 languages. These include Arabic, Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, etc. — In the questionnaire for qualitative analysis, having more than 100 questions, each country’s score is evaluated after assessment of the state of media across five factors: the political context, legal framework, economic context, sociocultural context and safety. — Questions with yes/no choices or multiple choices are given out, such as “In the past 12 months, have the authorities blocked accounts or had posts deleted in response to the posting or sharing of journalistic content?” and “Have any journalists been assaulted in the past 12 months?” What does the 2023 report say about press freedom globally? — The index states in 2023 that “the environment for journalism is ‘bad’ in seven out of ten countries, and satisfactory in only three out of ten.” — It also highlighted concerns of propaganda fake news, further heightened given the rise of artificial intelligence technology. Programmes like Midourney, which can create lifelike images based on a simple text prompt, were mentioned in this context. “North Korea (180th), China (179th), Vietnam (178th), Myanmar (173rd) – Asia’s one-party regimes and dictatorships are the ones that constrict journalism the most, with leaders tightening their totalitarian stranglehold on the public discourse,” it states, terming China as “The world’s biggest jailer of journalists and press freedom advocates.” — It adds that “The other phenomenon that dangerously restricts the free flow of information is the acquisition of media outlets by oligarchs who maintain close ties with political leaders,” mentioning the case of India as an example of such a “hybrid” regime. (Source: What is the World Press Freedom Index and how does it measure countries? ) Point to ponder: ‘Press must remain free if a country is to remain a democracy’: CJI Chandrachud at RNG awards. Discuss. 3. MCQ With reference to World Press Freedom Index, consider the following statements: 1. India has slipped 11 places to the 161st rank out of 180 countries. 2. Finland secured the first position. Which of the statements above is/are correct? (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Akashvani WHY IN NEWS? — The Centre, on Wednesday (May 3), ordered that public broadcaster, previously known as All India Radio (AIR), be exclusively referred to as Akashvani in all broadcasts and programmes. Previously, the two names were used interchangeably. “The aforesaid statutory provision, which has replaced the name of AIR with Akashvani, may be brought to the attention of all so that names and titles get in tune with the provisions of the Prasar Bharati Act, 1990, passed by Parliament,” the order said. “This was long pending and in line with the law which came into being in 1997. Our listeners have more of a connect with Akashvani and so we are ridding ourselves of colonial baggage that may have persisted,” Gaurav Dwivedi, the CEO of Prasar Bharati, the parent organisation of Akashvani, said. KEY TAKEAWAYS — AIR has a rich history. In its heydays, it was a staple in millions of Indian households, bringing news, sports and entertainment to homes across the country, even to its underserviced hinterlands. A journey which began a century ago — After Guglielmo Marconi sent out the first radio transmission in 1895, it took over two decades for radio broadcasting to become commercially available. In India, the Radio Club of Bombay sent out the first commercial transmission in 1923. In the same year, the Calcutta Radio Club was started and a year later, radio broadcasts reached Madras with the Madras Presidency Radio Club. — Early years of radio broadcasting were marked with fascination about the new technology and a constant state of financial precarity. The ambitious Indian Broadcasting Company (IBC) came into existence in 1927, only to face bankruptcy in 1930. — It was not until the government stepped in that there was a degree of stability in radio programming. In 1930, the Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS), under the Department of Industries and Labour, commenced its operations on an experimental basis. Senior BBC producer Lionel Fielden was appointed as India’s first Controller of Broadcasting in 1935 and brought major advancements to the programming. — Finally, on June 8, 1936, ISBS became All India Radio. A year later, AIR was brought under the Department of Communications, and four years later, under the Department of Information and Broadcasting, now called the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (under whose jurisdiction it remains till date). A story of exponential growth — At the time of Independence, India was left with six radio stations: at Delhi, Lucknow, Bombay, Madras and Trichy (three others – Peshawar, Lahore and Dacca – had gone to Pakistan). In terms of coverage, AIR covered just two percent of India’s land area and reached just 11 percent of its population. To truly be All India Radio, AIR had to grow – and grow it did. — Today, with a network of over 262 radio stations, AIR is available to 92 per cent of India’s area and nearly all of its population. It broadcasts in 23 languages and 146 dialects, catering to India’s diverse demographics and tastes. It also has an External Services Division which broadcasts in 11 Indian and 16 foreign languages, reaching out to more than 100 countries. Its News Services Division broadcasts 647 bulletins daily for a total duration of nearly 56 hours. — FM broadcasting began in 1977 in Chennai, and expanded during the 1990s. Today, AIR 18 FM stereo channels, largely targeting the urban audience. — The name Akashvani was adopted by AIR in 1956. It was used interchangeably with AIR, often to specifically refer to its Hindi broadcasting. For many Indians today, the Akashvani jingle evokes the memories of a bygone time when Indians would wake up to the sounds of the jingle at the break of dawn and start their day with AIR programming. — The jingle was composed by Walter Kaufmann. Born in Karlsbad (present day Czech Republic), Kaufmann trained in music in Prague and Berlin before fleeing Nazi persecution and landing in India in the mid 1930s. He joined AIR in 1937 and worked as a director of music in Bombay. During his time in India, he extensively researched native musical traditions and even worked in Bollywood. Broadcasting modern Indian history — More than anything else, AIR’s place in history is cemented due to its role in communicating momentous events in India’s recent history. Prior to the advent of television or digital media, it was radio that was the medium through which Indians consumed news, cricket or entertainment. Whether it be Jawaharlal Nehru’s iconic “Tryst with Destiny” speech in 1947 or Kapil Dev’s mythical 175 run knock in 1983, it was AIR which brought these events to homes across the country. (Source: All India Radio to only be referred to as Akashvani: A brief history of the Indian public broadcaster) Point to ponder: "Given the linguistic diversity and its politics in India, the official names of institutions, schemes and policies should not be divorced from local cultures." Discuss. 4. MCQ: With reference to the history of radio broadcasting in India, consider the following statements: 1. The Calcutta radio club sent out the first commercial transmission in India in 1923. 2. Usha Mehta is remembered for organizing an underground radio station that functioned during the Quit India Movement. 3. Akashvani is the largest radio network in the world. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 2 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) All of the above ANSWERS TO MCQs: 1 (d), 2 (b), 3 (a), 4 (c) Share your views, answers and suggestions in the comment box or at manas.srivastava@indianexpress.com (The UPSC Essentials Indian Express is now on Telegram: The Indian Express- UPSC Hub. Click here to join our YouTube channel and stay updated with the latest updates. Subscribe to The Indian Express UPSC Key and prepare for the Civil Services and other competitive examinations with cues on how to read and understand content from the most authoritative news source in India. Note: Catch the UPSC Weekly Quiz every Saturday evening and brush up on your current affairs knowledge.)
