UPSC Key: Indian ocean mineral exploration, Postal ballots, and Cybercrimes

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation

What’s the ongoing story: India last week signed a contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) for exclusive rights to explore Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS) in the Carlsberg Ridge in the Indian Ocean.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What are Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS)? What is its significance?

— Know about the International Seabed Authority (ISA)

— Why are countries pushing for seabed exploration?

— What are the initiatives taken by India?

— Know about the location of Carlsberg Ridge in the Indian Ocean

— What is the Deep Ocean Mission program?

— What is the Samudrayaan mission?

— Exploration for PMS is technically more challenging than other deep-sea mineral investigations. How?

Key Takeaways:

— With this, India has become the first country in the world to have two contracts with the ISA for PMS exploration. It now commands the largest area allocated in the international seabed for PMS exploration — a scientific achievement with strategic importance.

— Goa-based National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) will carry out the PMS exploration in 2026, starting with geophysical and hydrographic surveys in the licensed area

— Polymetallic Sulphides are deposits on the ocean floor, rich in strategic and critical metals such as copper, zinc, lead, gold, and silver, along with trace amounts of rare and precious elements.

— Since land resources containing these minerals are very limited for India, exploring PMS in the deep ocean could enhance resource security. These metals are essential for high-technology applications, renewable energy systems, and green technologies.

— PMS deposits are generally found near hydrothermal vents, which are like hot springs on the ocean floor. The ocean seabed has cracks. Through these cracks, the cold seawater interacts with the magma under the earth’s crust, and is expelled back in a hot gush. This expelled water is rich in minerals, which are then deposited on the ocean floor as solids.

— The ongoing Deep Ocean Mission program of the government has enhanced these capabilities, including the acquisition of new deep-sea vessels and advanced tools, such as Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). Matsya, a deep-sea vehicle under development for the ambitious Samudrayaan mission, will provide an additional boost to India’s deep-ocean mineral exploration capacity.

Indian Ocean.

— The Carlsberg Ridge is a major segment of the mid-ocean ridge system in the Indian Ocean, formed by seafloor spreading between the Indian Plate and the Somali Plate. It is estimated that the current phase of opening of the Carlsberg Ridge began at about 40 million years ago following a major plate reorganisation and its average spreading rate is of 2.4 to 3.3 cm/year.

— The ridge is known to host hydrothermal vent systems, potential sites of PMS deposits.

— Strategically, the Carlsberg Ridge is particularly important because it is located much closer to India (around 2 degree north) compared with the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges (around 26 degree south).

— India is looking to acquire additional sites in the Indian Ocean for mineral exploration as part of the Blue Economy initiatives of the Government of India.

Do You Know:

— The ISA is an autonomous international organisation. It allocates sites for mineral exploration in international waters under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) framework. A country, either through its government, public sector, or sponsored entity, can submit applications to the ISA.

— With India’s 11,098 km-long coastline, the government has long pushed for a blue economy policy — harnessing ocean resources for economic growth. The deep ocean is home to several unexplored minerals, fuels, and biodiversity resources. It is also where a crucial medium of modern global telecommunications is found in the form of undersea cables, which are laid on the ocean floor.

— Additionally, only a few countries presently possess deep-sea exploration capabilities, including the United States, Russia, China, Japan, and France. India will join this select group of nations with the Samudrayaan Project, which is among the six components of the Deep Ocean Mission approved by the Union Cabinet in 2021.

— Samudrayaan is India’s manned deep ocean mission envisioned for deep sea mineral exploration. It is a project under the Deep Ocean Mission. Under the mission, MATSYA 6000 manned submersible design has been completed.

— Matsya-6000, the submersible vehicle set to transport three Indians into the deep sea in 2026, has successfully completed wet tests and facilitated multiple manned dives in the Bay of Bengal.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍How India’s ‘aquanauts’ will undertake deep sea exploration under Samudrayaan Project

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(1) Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2021)

1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.

2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.

3. “Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

 

FRONT

India to build two cross-border railway projects to link Bhutan, will cost Rs 4,000 crore

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: India and its neighbourhood- relations.

What’s the ongoing story: The Centre on Monday announced two cross-border railway projects of 69-km and 20-km length that will connect Bhutan with the bordering areas of Assam and West Bengal.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What are the areas of cooperation between India and Bhutan?

— Know about the historical background of India and Bhutan relationship

— Where is Gelephu located?

— What is the strategic significance of Bhutan for India?

— What are the challenges in the India-Bhutan relationship?

— India and Bhutan share a deep-rooted partnership, strengthened by diplomatic, economic, and security cooperation. Elaborate.

Key Takeaways:

— The 69-km Kokrajhar (Assam)-Gelephu (Bhutan) and 20-km Banarhat (West Bengal)-Samtse (Bhutan) will cost Rs 3,456 crore and Rs 577 crore, respectively.

— Vaishnaw said the projects are of great significance since Bhutan’s Gelephu is being developed as Mindfulness City and Samtse as an industrial town.

— “India is the largest trading partner of Bhutan and most of the EXIM trade of Bhutan is done through Indian Ports.”

— The minister said the Banarhat-Samtse line will have two stations, one major bridge, 24 minor bridges, one overpass and 37 underpasses and it will be completed in three years. He said the Samtse line will cover 2.13 km of Bhutanese side and 17.42 km Indian side, while the Gelephu line will cover 2.39 km Bhutanese side and 66.66 km Indian side.

— The minister said the lines will be fully electrified and well-equipped to run modern trains such as Vande Bharat, including an advanced signalling system.

— On the strategic importance of the project, Foreign Secretary Vikram Misri said that it will enhance overall connectivity between the two countries.

— The Foreign Secretary said the segment of the project falling on the Indian side will be funded by the Railways ministry and the line on Bhutan side will be taken care of under the support for Bhutan’s 13th Five Year Plan from India. He said there was no involvement of any third country when asked if China was involved in the project.

— Both the cross-border projects are result of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Bhutan in March 2024, when a memorandum of understanding was signed between the two countries.

— India has been Bhutan’s largest provider of developmental assistance. For the 13th Five Year Plan of Bhutan, which runs between 2024-29, India has committed a support of Rs 10,000 crore, which covers project-tied assistance, high-impact community development projects, the economic stimulus program, and a program grant.

— India is Bhutan’s top trading partner as the principal source of import and the main destination of their exports, accounting for nearly 80 per cent of Bhutan’s total trade.

Do You Know:

— Located between two of Asia’s largest powers, Bhutan holds disproportionate geopolitical weight in South Asian affairs. Its location just north of India’s Siliguri Corridor, the narrow land link connecting the northeastern states to the rest of the country, makes it a crucial buffer against China’s territorial ambitions.

— The 2017 Doklam standoff, triggered by China’s attempts to expand its footprint in the disputed plateau, served as a sharp reminder of Bhutan’s role in India’s security matrix. Since then, Beijing has continued to pressure Bhutan into settling border disputes, while simultaneously offering economic incentives to draw it closer.

— India and Bhutan share a deep-rooted partnership, strengthened by diplomatic, economic, and security cooperation. The India-Bhutan Trade, Commerce, and Transit Agreement, first signed in 1972 and last revised in 2016, ensures a free trade regime, making India Bhutan’s largest economic partner.

— Bhutan’s economy is closely tied to India through hydropower exports, which constitute 40% of Bhutan’s national revenue and 25% of its GDP. India has been the primary financier and developer of Bhutan’s hydropower sector, ensuring its economic sustainability while securing low-cost renewable energy for India.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Bhutan’s unique position in India’s regional strategy

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

📍Border management is a complex task due to difficult terrain and hostile relations with some countries. Elucidate the challenges and strategies for effective border management. (UPSC CSE 2016).

 

GOVT & POLITICS

Postal ballots: The numbers, and why Opposition favours the new formula

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Indian Polity and Governance – Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.

What’s the ongoing story: Days before the 2024 Lok Sabha election results were declared, the Opposition INDIA bloc asked the Election Commission (EC) to ensure that counting of postal ballots was completed before the final counting of the EVM votes, seeking a reversal of the poll body’s 2019 directive that allowed EVM counting to continue “irrespective of the stage of postal ballot counting”.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is the postal ballot?

— Why is there a provision of postal ballots?

— Who can avail this facility?

— What are the recent changes made by the Election Commission for postal ballots?

— Know about EVM/VVPATs

— Who are absentee voters?

— What is the Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System?

Key Takeaways:

— Now, more than a year later, ahead of the Bihar Assembly elections, the EC – which is fighting fire over its Special Intensive Revision of poll rolls in the state – has withdrawn its 2019 directive.

— In instructions issued to all states and Union Territories on September 25, the EC said: “The penultimate (second last) round of EVM/VVPATs counting shall not be taken up until the counting of postal ballot papers is completed at the counting centre.”

— The argument of the Opposition parties, demanding that postal ballot counting be finished first, has been that in case of a close election, it is possible to influence results by rejecting or validating postal ballots, which are counted physically, at the last minute. Postal ballots can be rejected, for instance, if they are incorrectly or illegibly filled out.

— Over the years, the number of postal ballots has increased significantly as more and more people have been allowed to vote by mail. As per the provisions in the Conduct of Election Rule, 1961, members of the armed forces, government employees posted outside India, or those deployed on election duty can vote by post, as can voters under preventive detention.

— Special voters such as the President, Vice-President, Governors, Union Cabinet ministers, and Speakers also have the option to vote by post.

— In 2019, the Law Ministry, at the EC’s behest, introduced a new category of “absentee voters”, who can now also opt for postal voting. These are voters employed in essential services — including Railway employees and media personnel — who are unable to cast their vote due to their service conditions.

— In 2020, the EC extended the facility further to senior citizens above the age of 80 and persons with disabilities.

— Ahead of the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, the EC also introduced the Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System (ETPBS), through which postal ballots are sent to service voters electronically instead of by post, though the ballots are still returned by post.

— When the EC issued its 2019 directive, it had cited the considerable increase in the number of postal ballots since the introduction of the ETPBS as a reason for delinking postal ballot counting completely from EVMs.

— Since the EC began publishing complete data on postal ballots in the 1990s, the number of voters availing this service has consistently increased both in the Lok Sabha and state Assembly polls.

— In the 1996 Lok Sabha elections, 3.6 lakh postal ballots were cast, or just 0.1% of all votes cast that year. In 2024, 42.82 lakh people cast their vote by post, making up 0.66% of the total votes – the highest ever share of postal ballots in general elections.

— In Bihar, after declining for three consecutive Assembly polls, from 1995 to 2005, the number of postal ballots have increased considerably every election. In 1995, 2,209 postal votes were cast, accounting for 0.01% of all votes.

Do You Know:

— January 25 is celebrated annually as National Voters’ Day to mark the foundation day of the Election Commission of India (ECI), which was founded on January 25, 1950.

— The day aims to promote people’s participation in elections by encouraging and felicitating young voters and increasing voter enrolment. It is also utilised to spread awareness among voters and to promote informed participation in the electoral process.

— In democracies, voting is seen as a basic exercise that shows people’s faith in the political process. Voting gives each person a say in deciding who will hold positions of power in their society and is a crucial part of exercising one’s citizenship.

— In 2013, the Indian Supreme Court allowed for the option ‘None of the Above’ to be introduced in Lok Sabha and state Legislative Assembly elections to allow such views to be expressed.

— “Not allowing a person to cast a vote negatively defeats the very freedom of expression and the right ensured in Article 21, i.e. the right to liberty… a provision of negative voting would be in the interest of promoting democracy as it would send clear signals to political parties and their candidates as to what the electorate think about them. The mechanism of negative voting, thus, serves a very fundamental and essential part of a vibrant democracy,” the court said at the time

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Govt amends rules to allow postal ballots for those aged 85 or above, not 80-plus

📍Explained: Postal ballots and why they are fast turning into a political controversy

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(2) What is the eligibility age, after the changes made in March 2024, for senior citizens to vote

by postal ballot? (70th BPSC)

(a) 82 years

(b) 90 years

(c) 85 years

(d) 80 years

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

📍In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? (UPSC CSE 2018)

EXPRESS NETWORK

Cybercrimes rise 31.2%, most cases linked to fraud

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation. Challenges to internal security through communication networks, basics of cyber security.

What’s the ongoing story: Cybercrime in India saw a sharp surge of 31.2% in 2023, with fraud, extortion and sexual exploitation accounting for the majority of cases, according to the latest data released by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB).

Key Points to Ponder:

— What are cybercrimes?

— What is ‘digital arrest’?

— What are the key highlights of NCRB Report 2023?

— What is the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)?

— What are the various forms of cybercrimes prevalent in India?

— What are the key causes behind the growing number of cybercrimes in India?

— What measures have been taken by the government to tackle cyber crimes?

Key Takeaways:

— Fraud-related offences dominated, making up nearly 69% of all cybercrime incidents, highlighting growing concerns over digital security and the urgent need for enhanced cyber vigilance across the country.

— According to the report, ‘Crime in India’, the number of cases registered under the cybercrimes category rose to 86,420 in 2023 from 65,893 cases recorded in 2022. The crime rate under this category increased from 4.8% in 2022 to 6.2% in 2023.

—  The rise in the number of cases registered under the cybercrime category has been steady — from 27,248 in 2018 to 44,735 in 2019 to 50,035 cases in 2020, 52,974 in 2021 and 65,893 in 2022.

— In 2023, the highest cybercrime cases — 21,889 — were reported from Karnataka, which saw 8,136 such cases in 2021 and 12,556 in 2022.

— According to the report, Karnataka saw 18,166 cheating cases committed by personation and 1,007 cases where obscene videos were transferred.

— According to the report, a total of 2,04,973 cases were registered under economic offences, showing an increase of 6% in registration as compared with 1,93,385 cases in 2022. “Out of three specified category of economic offences – criminal breach of trust, FCF (forgery, cheating and fraud) and counterfeiting — FCF accounted for maximum of 1,81,553 such cases, criminal breach of trust with 22,759 cases, followed by 661 cases of counterfeiting in 2023,” the report shows.

Do You Know:

— Cybercrime encompasses a wide range of malicious activities, including identity theft, online fraud, financial fraud, hacking, cyberstalking, and the distribution of harmful software, among others. Digital Arrest is a form of online fraud.

— Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C):  The I4C, established in 2018, is a department under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) tasked with establishing a national-level coordination centre to address cybercrime-related issues.

— In September 2024, four I4C platforms were inaugurated — the Cyber Fraud Mitigation Centre (CFMC), the ‘Samanvaya’ platform, a Cyber Commandos programme and a Suspect Registry.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍UPSC Issue at a Glance | India’s Cybercrime Challenge : Rise and Response

📍UPSC Knowledge Nugget of the day: Digital Arrest

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(3) In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents? (UPSC CSE 2017)

1. Service providers

2. Data centres

3. Body corporate

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

📍What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy. (UPSC CSE 2022)

Common supplies to joint training: Armed Forces look at steps ahead of theatrisation

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Government Policies & Interventions, Various Security Forces & Agencies & their Mandate Security Challenges & their Management in Border Areas.

What’s the ongoing story: Standardisation of equipment, common supply chains for logistics and procurement, combined training at all levels, more cross-postings, exposure to other services and even greater social interaction among personnel — these are among the steps being pushed to increase jointness and integration among the Army, Navy and Air Force, ahead of the creation of theatre commands, The Indian Express has learned.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is the theaterisation of the Armed Forces?

— What are integrated theatre commands?

— Read about Operation Sindoor.

— What is the significance of the Combined Commanders’ Conference?

— What are the key issues and challenges faced by India’s defence sector?

— What are some important developments in India’s defence sector?

— What is the significance of boosting indigenisation in the defence sector?

Key Takeaways:

— Some of these measures were discussed at the Combined Commanders Conference in Kolkata earlier this month, which was also attended by the Prime Minister.

— According to sources, the Armed Forces are working to deepen their understanding of each other’s capabilities and challenges so that tri-service requirements can be built into operational plans from the outset, as part of wider measures to increase jointness and integration before any major reform such as theatre commands is implemented. The three services, however, are yet to reach consensus on the creation of theatre commands.

— The push follows decisions announced at the Combined Commanders Conference in Kolkata last week, including the formation of a single tri-services Education Corps and the establishment of three joint military stations, in Thiruvananthapuram, Visakhapatnam and Gandhinagar, in the first phase.

— The Indian Express has learned that there will now be a sharper focus on inter-services training at all levels, to ensure personnel are familiar with each other’s equipment and capabilities for optimal use.

— Vacancies and syllabi of select courses are being reworked so that personnel of all three services can train together, contribute and learn from one another. The tri-service communication network, which currently exists at a limited level, is also planned to be expanded for seamless communication and data-sharing.

— Inter-service postings are set to increase at all levels. Alongside, efforts are underway to standardise equipment and platforms to ensure interoperability, streamline supply chains and spares management. According to sources, changes are also being considered in the format of annual confidential reports, so that they reflect both service-specific and tri-service requirements.

Do You Know:

— Held once every two years, the Combined Commanders’ Conference (CCC) is the apex forum that brings together the nation’s top civilian and military leadership to chart the path of India’s defence preparedness.

— The 16th Combined Commanders’ Conference (CCC) held at the Army’s Eastern Command headquarters in Kolkata. The 2025 edition is being held under the theme ‘Year of Reforms – Transformation for the Future’.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍PM calls for self-reliance, greater synergy to push defence reforms 

UPSC Mains Practice Question Covering similar theme:

📍What is the significance of Integrated Theatre Commands? Discuss the challenges of implementing integrated theatre commands in India.

 

ECONOMY

Post new sectoral tariffs, worries over effectiveness of a trade deal with US

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies-II, III: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests, Indian Economy.

What’s the ongoing story: The effectiveness of trade deals with the US has come under fresh scrutiny as US President Donald Trump on Friday expanded the tariff net to multiple products, including patented drugs and heavy trucks that were previously exempted from reciprocal tariffs.

Key Points to Ponder:

— Read about the India-US trade deal negotiations.

— What are the areas of cooperation between India and the US?

— What are India’s import and export trends with regard to the US?

— What are the implications of the higher tariff imposed by the US on India?

—- What are Section 232 tariffs and how do they affect India–US trade relations?

—- What are the key challenges in finalising a trade deal between India and the US?

— What are the key developments in India-US relations in the various sectors?

— What steps should be taken to manage the implications of higher tariffs?

Key Takeaways:

— Trump’s move assumes significance as India is in the middle of negotiations with the US, and the elimination of reciprocal tariffs is a key ask from the Indian side, though sectoral tariffs are not part of the talks.

— While the tariffs on pharma drugs may not affect India in the short term, experts said that the use of Section 232 is already impacting India’s steel and aluminium manufacturers, and expansion of tariffs could further hurt exports even after the trade deal. Government officials said that a new investigation could lead to more products with steel and aluminium facing higher tariffs in the US.

— Deborah Elms, Head of Trade Policy at the Singapore-based Hinrich Foundation, said that fresh sectoral tariffs under Section 232 raise several questions about whether or not they are covered under any existing bilateral trade deals. The US has already pushed for steep asks from India to sign a trade deal. Differences over India’s purchase of Russian oil have already been a flashpoint between India and the US.

— In signs that India may not receive relief for Section 232 tariffs under the trade deal, New Delhi has begun approaching the WTO against sectoral tariffs and has also indicated retaliation. Minister of State for Commerce and Industry Jitin Prasada, in a written reply to a parliamentary question earlier this year, said that the US has refused discussions in the WTO over steel and aluminium tariffs, citing national security.

— The Commerce and Industry Ministry on Friday said that India and the US “exchanged views on possible contours of the deal” and it was decided to continue the engagements with a view to achieving early conclusion of a mutually beneficial Trade Agreement.

— “The Minister had meetings with Ambassador Jamieson Greer, United States Trade Representative and Sergio Gor, U.S. Ambassador-designate to India. Apart from meetings with the U.S. Government representatives on bilateral trade matters, the delegation held discussions with key U.S.-based businesses and investors on promoting trade and investment between India and the United States,” the Ministry said.

— The delegation had constructive meetings with the U.S. Government on various aspects of the deal. Both sides exchanged views on possible contours of the deal, and it was decided to continue the engagements with a view to achieving early conclusion of a mutually beneficial Trade Agreement.

Do You Know:

— The US is India’s largest trade partner, with bilateral trade reaching almost $120 billion in FY24 — slightly higher than India’s China trade. However, unlike China, India’s trade relationship with the US is favourable, which makes the US a vital source of foreign exchange.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Jaishankar hits out at US tariff, says talks on, ‘lines not cut’

📍UPSC Issue at a Glance | Tariff war: 4 Key Questions You Must Know for Prelims and Mains

Previous year UPSC Mains Questions Covering similar theme:

📍‘What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions’. Explain with suitable examples. (UPSC CSE 2019)

ALSO IN NEWS
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Bihar elections: What is the Opposition’s EBC resolution, why it matters	The Mahagathbandhan’s announcement of a 10-point ‘Atipichhda Nyay Sankalp’ (‘Extremely Backward Classes Justice Resolution’) last week is significant ahead of the upcoming Assembly polls in Bihar. The Extremely Backward Classes (EBCs) are the largest social group in Bihar, one which has been a traditional voter base for Nitish Kumar and his Janata Dal (United). The EBCs are a sub-category of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) specifically defined by the Bihar government. They comprise socially and educationally disadvantaged castes that were deemed “more deprived” than the larger OBC grouping. Bihar pioneered caste-based reservations more than a decade before the Mandal Commission recommendations were implemented nationally. In 1978, then Chief Minister Karpoori Thakur, an EBC leader himself, announced a 26% reservation in government jobs for backward classes.

 

PRELIMS ANSWER KEY

1. (b)    2. (c)     3. (d)

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