UPSC Issue at a Glance | Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and India: 4 essential questions to understand the debate

What is the issue?

Disagreements over sensitive sectors such as agriculture and dairy have added to the uncertainty of an interim trade deal between India and the United States. As US negotiators are turning up the heat, urging India to open its agriculture market to genetically modified (GM) crops, India has been resisting US demands for greater access in the agriculture and dairy sectors and accepting GM imports. In this context, let’s know about the GM crops — understanding the underlying technology, their potential benefits, and the broader concerns associated with them.

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(Relevance: UPSC Syllabus General Studies- II, III: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests, Effects of liberalisation on the economy, Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.)

What will you learn from this article?

What are genetically modified (GM) crops, and how are GM different from genetic editing? What is the current status of GM crop cultivation in India, and how is it regulated? What are the benefits of the GM crops? What are the major concerns associated with the GM crops?

Question 1: What are genetically modified (GM) crops, and how are GM different from genetic editing?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) involve the modification of the genetic material of the host by the introduction of foreign genetic material. In the case of agriculture, soil bacteria is the best mining source for such genes, which are then inserted into the host genome using genetic engineering. For example, in the case of cotton, the introduction of the genes cry1Ac and cry2Ab mined from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) allows the native cotton plant to generate endotoxins to fight pink bollworm naturally. BT Cotton uses this advantage to help farmers naturally fight pink bollworm, which is the most common pest for cotton farmers. 

Notably, GMOs is a broader term that includes GM crops as a subset. GM crops are plants used in agriculture whose DNA has been altered to add desired properties. They are usually developed to increase yield, resist pests/herbicides, and withstand extreme weather conditions.

Evolution of crop improvement. (Source: An Overview of Genetically Modified Crops by GEAC)

How is Gene Modification different from Gene Editing?

Gene modification is different from genetic editing (GE). GM involves the introduction of genes from unrelated species into host plants. “GM is nothing more than a breeding technique, much like crossing that we’ve been doing for thousands of years. But it’s more sophisticated, so we can make very precise changes very rapidly,” said David Spencer, a phytopathologist and spokesperson for Replanet, an alliance of NGOs advocating for science-based solutions to climate change and the loss of biodiversity.

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GE, also known as genome editing, on the other hand, entails mere “editing” of genes naturally present in the host plant, leading to mutation or changes in their DNA sequence. No foreign genes or DNA are incorporated. In simple terms, gene editing is a technique that allows scientists to ‘cut’ DNA strands and edit genes. The technology enables a simple but remarkably efficient way to ‘edit’ the genetic codes of organisms, thus opening up the possibility of ‘correcting’ genetic information to cure diseases, prevent physical deformities, or even produce cosmetic enhancements.

How the technique works

Question 2: What is the current status of GM crop cultivation in India, and how is it regulated?

There is significant resistance to GM crops in India. Only one GM crop, Bt cotton, is approved for cultivation. No GM food crop is commercially grown, although experimental trials continue. However, imports of GM soybean oil and canola oil are permitted.

Ashok Gulati and Ritika Juneja write- “Approval for Bt brinjal and GM mustard (DMH 11), developed at Delhi University by Deepak Pental’s team, remains on hold. These crops cleared in principle by the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) haven’t received full commercial green light. Bt brinjal has been under moratorium since 2009, while GM mustard got conditional environmental release in 2022—but commercialisation has stalled pending further regulatory checks and potentially a Supreme Court ruling.”

Regulation of GM crops

In India, the introduction of GM crops is a laborious process which involves multiple levels of checks. The GEAC, a high power committee under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, is the regulator for introduction of any GM material and in case of agriculture multiple field trials, data about biosafety and other information is necessary for getting the nod before commercial release of any GM crop. 

According to the GEAC’s An Overview of Genetically Modified Crops – “Development, cultivation and transboundary movement of GM crops is regulated to ensure the safety of animal health, human health and biodiversity. In India, such regulations are provided in the Rules for Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms (HM) Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989 under the Environment Protection Act (1986). The rules cover:

📌All activities involving research and development of products containing GMOs including transgenic crops, pharma products, industrial products, food and foodstuffs.

📌Field and clinical trials

📌Deliberate or unintentional release

📌Import, export and manufacture

Notably, use of the unapproved GM variant can attract a jail term of 5 years and fine of Rs 1 lakh under the Environmental Protection Act ,1989.

After knowing the basics of GM crops, let’s now understand the debate surrounding their potential benefits and associated concerns.

Question 3: What are the benefits of the GM crops?

Across the world, GM crops have been a topic of debate, with many environmentalists opposing them on the grounds of biosafety and incomplete data, but for some experts it is the best science-based method for a sustainable global food system amidst biodiversity loss and a rising population.

The conventional plant breeding methods are very time-consuming and often not very accurate. Thus, genetically modified crops offer a novel way to improve yield, build resistances to pests, frost or drought, or add nutrients.

For example, in 2002 the government of India allowed Bt cotton in India, and later improved production of cotton was seen. Explaining this, Ashok Gulati and Ritika Juneja write, “The only crop that is GM in India is cotton. It was Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s government in 2002 when this bold decision to allow Bt cotton was taken. Today, more than 90 per cent of India’s cotton area is under Bt cotton.

The results were dramatic. Cotton production surged from 13.6 million bales in 2002–03 to 39.8 million bales in 2013–14 — a phenomenal 193 per cent growth. Productivity shot up by 87 per cent (from 302 kg/ha to 566 kg/ha), and cultivated area expanded by 56 per cent, with Bt cotton dominating. Farmers’ incomes soared, and Gujarat even witnessed an agrarian boom — the state averaged over 8 per cent annual growth in agri GDP. By then, India had become the world’s second-largest cotton producer after China and the second-largest exporter after the US, hitting $4.1 billion of net exports during 2011-12.”

Crops can also be modified to reduce carbon emissions and boost the sustainability of food production. While widespread, GM crop production uses only about 10% of the land non-GM crop production uses.

Fred Schwaller writes, “Gene editing technology has also helped save crop production from blights. In the late 20th century, the papaya ringspot virus almost wiped out papaya crops in Hawaii, but a local scientist developed a modified papaya that was resistant to the virus. Seeds were distributed to farmers, saving papaya production a decade later.”

Question 4: What are the major concerns associated with the GM crops?

When GM crops were first developed 30 years ago, uncertainty and concerns about safety were shared by scientists. Environmentalists argue that the long-lasting effect of GM crops is yet to be studied and thus they should not be released commercially. Genetic modification, they say, brings about changes that can be harmful to humans in the long run.

Ravi Dutta Mishra of The Indian Express explains, “a 2013 report by the European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER) emphasised that many studies deeming GM foods safe were industry-funded and that long-term, independent studies were lacking.

New Delhi-based think tank GTRI said: “Environmental studies have shown that widespread use of Bt crops can lead to pest resistance, such as in the pink bollworm, and pose risks to non-target species such as monarch butterflies, as suggested in a 1999 Nature study. Additionally, the overuse of glyphosate with herbicide-tolerant GM crops has led to ‘superweeds’ and increased herbicide use.”

The GTRI said that GM and non-GM crops may intermingle at various stages of the supply chain – during transport, storage or processing. “Once GM material enters, there is a high risk it could leak into local farming systems or processed food chains, posing risks to food safety, environmental integrity, and India’s export reputation – especially in GM-sensitive markets such as the EU,” the think tank warned.

It said the import of GM products, like animal feed, could negatively affect India’s agricultural exports to the EU which enforces strict GM-labelling rules and faces strong consumer opposition to GM-linked products.

Although GM feed is permitted, many European buyers prefer fully GM-free supply chains. India’s fragmented agri-logistics and lack of segregation infrastructure increase the likelihood of cross-contamination and trace GM presence in export consignments. This could result in shipment rejections, higher testing costs, and erosion of India’s GM-free image, particularly in sectors like rice, tea, honey, spices and organic foods, the GTRI said.”

Additionally, GM crops are also criticised due to the overuse of specific herbicides. GM crops are mainly used to produce crops that are herbicide-resistant or produce pesticides. Farmers can then use herbicides on those crops to control weeds more effectively, without the plants themselves dying. This leads to higher yields on less land, and often with less chemicals used overall.

However, these crops rely on the use of lab-made chemicals. And although the government regulates them, ethical and safety debates continue. People raise concerns over potential long-term health impacts, impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, and the increased corporate control over agriculture.

Post Read Questions

Prelims

(1) Other than resistance to pests, what are the prospects for which genetically engineered plants have been created? (UPSC CSE 2012)

1. To enable them to withstand drought

2. To increase the nutritive value of the produce

3. To enable them to grow and do photosynthesis in spaceships and space stations

4. To increase their shelf life

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 and 4 only

(c) 1, 2 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

(2) Bollgard I and Bollgard II technologies are mentioned in the context of (UPSC CSE 2021)

(a) clonal propagation of crop plants

(b) developing genetically modified crop plants

(c) production of plant growth substances

(d) production of biofertilizers

(3) What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC CSE 2019)

(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

Mains

How can biotechnology help to improve the living standards of farmers? (UPSC CSE 2019)

(Sources: Amid impasse over India deal, Trump says tariff letters for 12 nations signed, GM food, Knowledge Nugget: What to know about gene editing for UPSC as world’s first GE rice varieties make headlines, geacindia.gov.in, GM seeds: the debate, and a sowing agitation, What’s the latest on GMOs and gene-edited foods)

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