Pigeons, dak runners, and railways: How India’s postal services evolved over time

Pigeon carriers in Odisha ( Source: Reuters)

Postal services in Mughal India 

During the Mughal era, the vast empire required an efficient communication system. As historian Irfan Habib explains in Postal Communications in Mughal India, the system relied on “the twin methods of relay-runners and relay-horses.” By the 1500s, Sher Shah Suri had perfected this dual system. Persian historian Ferishtah, also known by his full name Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi, wrote that Sher Shah during his short reign of five years (1541-1545) was the first to employ a mounted post in India.

At the top of the postal hierarchy was the Darogha-i Dak-i Kul Mumalik-i Mahrusa, or the Superintendent of the Posts of the entire Empire. Under his guidance, officials known as Darogh-i Dak were appointed, some of whom also acted as intelligencers. The postal organisation was called dak chauki, with dak meaning ‘post’ and chauki referring to relay stations for runners and horses. Under Akbar, these relay stations were set up every 11 miles, with each runner assigned two horses. 

The foot runners, known as meorahs, were said to be able to run as fast as a horse for a full day, a feat attributed to their liver removal in infancy to prevent shortness of breath, as noted by 16th-century Portuguese writer Antoni de Montserrat. However, unlike modern postal services, these facilities were used only for official government correspondence.

From pony express to telegraph lines: The British Empire’s postal revolution

The British East India Company consolidated its power in the Indian subcontinent by strategically controlling communication networks. In her article, Postal Relations Between Princely States And British India, author Devyani Gupta notes that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Company relied on the existing Mughal postal structures. However, by the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the Company’s expanding commercial and political interests required more secure and efficient communication systems. As a result, expanding and securing postal networks became a priority.

Geoffrey Rothe Clarke, a civil servant in British India, notes in The Post Office of India and Its Story that in 1766, Lord Clive, the Governor-General of Bengal, established the first regular postal system, assigning landholders along specific routes the responsibility of providing postal runners. Later, under Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of India, the system in Bengal was improved with the appointment of a Postmaster-General and the introduction of postage charges for private letters. By 1789, the East India Company had established a network of daks (postal relay runners) connecting major residences to Presidency towns. The General Post Office in Calcutta was opened in March 1774, followed by those in Madras and Bombay in 1786. This expanding infrastructure not only enhanced communication but also supported military and administrative functions.

General Post Office (G.P.O.), Kolkata ( Wikimedia Commons)

Writer Mulk Raj Anand, as cited by Gupta, observed that the expanding postal network played a crucial role in enabling the army to map new routes and establish cantonments.

The East India Company’s introduction of mail services along routes in newly conquered territories helped consolidate British control. Moreover, the establishment of postal lines also facilitated the Company’s territorial expansion. However, in 1836, the British were still unaware of the full extent of native daks run by Indian princes and private individuals, even through British territories. The Nawab of Oudh, for instance, operated a well-organised postal system spanning 14 major cities in north India. The Company sought to dismantle these networks due to conflicts over sovereignty and profit.

It wasn’t until 1837 that an Act formally established the East India Company’s monopoly on mail conveyance. Although postage was still distance-based, with rates like 12 anna for a letter from Calcutta to Agra, the Act sparked discontent by abolishing many private postal lines, which the Company struggled to replace. To address this issue, district posts were created, with local landholders responsible for funding them.

In Dak Roads, Dak Runners, and the Reordering of Communication Networks, academic Chitra Joshi examines the role of dak runners (or dauriyas), often from lower caste groups, who navigated difficult terrain to deliver mail. These runners were not only loyal but remarkably efficient, despite facing numerous dangers, including encounters with tigers, as recorded in official accounts. They were provided with food and fuel while working for the Company. Their intimate knowledge of routes and remarkable ability to navigate through challenging landscapes made them invaluable to the postal system.

Though there were attempts to introduce horse-drawn mail in the 1830s and 1840s, the use of horses was limited by cost and terrain challenges. Joshi argues that runners were preferred, particularly in regions lacking proper roads, because they could navigate difficult landscapes with ease.

Governor-General Dalhousie is credited with radical modernisation efforts in India’s communications system. In 1852, Dalhousie criticised the slow pace of Indian business and advocated for reforms like the 1854 Post Office Act (later amended as the Indian Post Office Act, 1898), which unified postal services across India. The reforms introduced fixed postage rates, affordable nationwide postage stamps, and faster mail transportation through carts and boats. Joshi’s study finds that the number of post offices grew rapidly, from 700 in 1854 to 12,970 by 1900, significantly improving the efficiency and speed of mail delivery.

Speaking to indianexpress.com, Joshi noted that while railways provided faster communication, their reach in the 19th century was limited. Postal department records from the 1890s reveal that runners remained an integral part of the mail delivery system. “Runners continued to be essential in many regions, especially in treacherous areas where other modes of transport were unavailable. In Ladakh, for instance, dak runners still operate today,” she says.

By 1919, rising prices prompted underpaid postal workers to demand higher wages. Committees were formed, leading to significant pay raises for both postal and telegraph staff. “It is no surprise that the dak system was closely linked to the telegraph, railways, and steamships,” remarks Chatterjee.

Reforming India Post: A legacy in the mail

By the early 20th century, India’s postal system had become a cornerstone of communication and efficiency. “By the beginning of the twentieth century, just like every major village was within 20 miles of a railway station, every major village also enjoyed close proximity to a postal office,” noted Chatterjee. His research further revealed the system’s remarkable reliability: in 1917-18, only 0.2% of articles failed to reach their destination, despite being written in over 20 Indian languages. From 23,000 offices before independence to 150,000 by 1978, the postal department evolved rapidly, transitioning to daily deliveries and expanding its reach.

Today, India Post is a commercial department of the Indian government, with over 160,000 post offices, more than 130,000 of which are in rural areas. With around 600,000 employees, it ranks third in size, after defence and railways. As V Ranganathan notes in his article Challenges in Reform of the Indian Postal Service, India Post remains a crucial infrastructure, providing essential “last-mile connectivity” and access to basic services, particularly in rural areas. “India Post had been the earliest adopter of technology and infrastructure changes; during the British period, it used the train extensively when it was introduced; when the airplane was introduced, again it was the first,” he writes.

However, in recent years, India Post has faced mounting competition from private players. It has lost the high-end market to international couriers like DHL, FedEx, and Blue Dart, who are often perceived as more reliable for on-time deliveries and guarantees — an area where India Post has struggled to keep pace. “The abolition of the Book Post is merely a formal step; it had been gradually phased out over the years as India Post’s infrastructure weakened,” remarks Joshi.

In December 2023, the Rajya Sabha passed the Post Office Bill, replacing the colonial-era Indian Post Office Act of 1898. The legislation seeks to enhance the Postal Department’s dual role as a messenger service and banking provider. While it revokes the government’s exclusive rights over letter delivery, it grants authority to intercept mail on grounds like state security or public order. “It is to be wondered whether the move to amend or repeal the Act of 1898 is a move towards decoloniality or whether colonial ideologies have a way of returning by other means through this move,” says Chatterjee, fearing India Post would shrink to a mere “museumised system.” He reminisced about the thrill of opening a yellow postcard letter decades ago. “One of my great mentors, the Indian poet Purushottama Lal, once sent me a letter,” he said. “The calligraphy itself was a key part of the experience. Though the letter was open to be read, it felt like a secret inscription — something indecipherable to the messenger or courier. You might call it romanticised, but there was a sense of secrecy in it — something this tech-savvy generation may never experience.”

Further reading:

1. The Post Office of India and Its Story by Geoffrey Rothe Clarke
2. The Great Indian Railways: A Cultural Biography by Arup K Chatterjee