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Journalism of Courage
— Jamal M. Moosa
(From civil wars and insurgencies to ethnic tensions and resource-based disputes, Africa has long been a continent marked by conflicts, resulting in widespread instability and humanitarian crises. The region is also becoming a battleground for global power struggle. In the Conflicts in Africa series, our experts explore the root causes of major African conflicts and their impact on India’s interests. They will also examine prospects for a peaceful future in the continent.)
Underlining the significance of India’s increasing engagement with the African continent, Prime Minister Narendra Modi last month visited Nigeria as part of his three-nation tour. The Prime Minister highlighted Nigeria’s potential as a major hub for Africa’s development. He also noted that in the last five years, India has opened 18 new embassies across Africa, reflecting its commitment to fostering deeper ties with the continent.
In that context, it becomes all the more important to know the African continent: Its total land area, number of countries, population, resources, economic expansion and so forth. In this opening article of the series on Conflicts in Africa, the author offers a brief overview of the continent. In the subsequent articles, the focus will be on the complexities of the conflicts in Africa and their impact on India’s interests.
Africa is the world’s second-largest continent, covering about 30.3 million square kilometers, including adjacent islands. This constitutes about 20 per cent of Earth’s land area and 6 per cent of its total surface area. As the second-most-populous continent, Africa’s population of approximately 1.52 billion accounts for about 18 per cent of the world’s population. Algeria is Africa’s largest country by area, and Nigeria is its largest by population.
Notably, Africa’s population is the youngest, with a median age of 19.2 years, in comparison to the global average of 30.6 years. Moreover, urbanisation is occurring at a rapid rate in Africa, with about 44.5 per cent of the population now living in urban areas, reflecting the trend of urban migration driven by economic opportunities and population growth.
However, Africa is the least wealthy continent per capita and second-least wealthy by total wealth, after Oceania. Several factors such as geographic challenges, climate change, colonialism, the Cold War’s lingering impacts, neocolonialism and corruption contribute to this. Despite such challenges, Africa hosts some of the fastest-growing economies such as Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Ghana. Economic expansion, vast natural resources (like oil, gas, minerals, and arable land), and the young population make Africa an economically vital region for the world.
With its unique ecosystems such as the savannas, and diverse marine and freshwater habitats, Africa is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world. However, this rich biodiversity is under threat due to various environmental issues such as desertification, deforestation, water scarcity, and pollution. Climate change further amplifies these environmental concerns. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has identified Africa as the most vulnerable continent due to its low adaptive capacity, economic reliance on climate-sensitive sectors, and widespread poverty.
The history of Africa is long, complex, and varied, encompassing ancient civilisations such as Egypt, Nubia, and Great Zimbabwe. However, the study of Africa’s history has often been marginalied in the global academic discourse. In African societies, the oral word is revered and is a significant source of our knowledge of the continent’s past.
During the colonial period, some European historians reportedly dismissed oral traditions and portrayed the African continent as “uncivilised” to justify colonial domination. However, African historiography became organised in the mid-20th century and saw a movement towards utilising oral sources in a multidisciplinary approach, leading to significant scholarly contributions like the UNESCO General History of Africa – an eight-volume project that incorporated diverse methodologies to highlight Africa’s historical depth and diversity.
Slavery had long been practised in Africa. However, the arrival of the Europeans/Portuguese in the 15th century changed the nature and scope of slavery. The transatlantic slave trade in the 15th and 19th centuries transported an estimated 7–12 million Africans to the New World (the Americas), which at that time constituted a substantial proportion of the continent’s population. Africans were primarily transported to work as labourers in mines or fields or on plantations (sugar, tobacco, and cotton). This caused widespread depopulation and socio-political disruptions, and distorted the development trajectory of the continent.
Driven largely by the economic demands of the Second Industrial Revolution during the 19th and 20th centuries, seven Western European powers rapidly conquered and colonised most of the African continent, often referred to as the “Scramble for Africa”. The Second Industrial Revolution spurred competition for raw materials, markets, and strategic territories. The phenomenon resulted in nearly 90 per cent of Africa falling under European control by 1914 (with only Liberia and Ethiopia and some tribal kingdoms retaining sovereignty), drastically reshaping the continent’s political, economic, and social landscapes.
In 1870, only about 10 per cent of the continent was formally under European control (primarily coastal regions). The 1884 Berlin Conference, organised by Otto von Bismarck, regulated European colonisation and resulted in the “scramble” by dividing African territories among European powers and drawing arbitrary borders. Colonial rule by Europeans continued until after World War II when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence.
Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France. Ghana followed suit in 1957, becoming the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence.
Over the next decade, waves of decolonisation took place across the continent, culminating in the 1960 Year of Africa. Most French colonies became part of the “franc zone” system, with France retaining fiscal and monetary control after ceding political control. At the same time, all the Portuguese colonies were liberated after waging a long-armed struggle.
The African Union (AU) has 55 member states. However, there are eight cities and islands that are part of non-African states. Additionally, there are two de facto independent states with limited recognition – Somaliland and Western Sahara.
The AU is the successor organisation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) established in 1963, with its headquarter in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The OAU was established to foster cooperation among African nations. In its initial years, the organisation focussed on issues like decolonisation and the eradication of apartheid. In 2002, the AU succeeded the OAU, adopting a broader mandate that includes promoting better governance, democratisation, improving socio-economic development, and fostering sustainable growth across the continent.
The continent currently faces multiple challenges like poverty, deprivation, epidemics, control of natural resources, conflict, civil strife and insurgencies. It is also becoming a battleground for global power struggle. Almost every global and emerging power has established institutional mechanisms to regularly engage the continent, like FOCOC (Forum on China-Africa Cooperation) by China, TICAD (Tokyo International Conference on African Development) by Japan and IAFS (India-Africa Forum Summit) by India.
During the US-Africa Leaders Summit in December 2022, US President Joe Biden said, “Africa’s success is the world’s success”, underlining the need for collective efforts to support the continent’s development. The statement also put the spotlight on weak institutions, which many African countries have.
In an effort to address these challenges, the continental leadership proclaimed Agenda 2063 during OAU’s Golden Jubilee celebration in 2013. This contains seven aspirations that the continent wishes to attain. It is hoped that if these aspirations are achieved, the continent will finally overcome its debilitating marginalisation and find its rightful place under the Sun.
Agenda 2063
Aspiration 1: A prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development
Aspiration 2: An integrated continent, politically united and based on the ideals of Pan-Africanism and the vision of Africa’s Renaissance
Aspiration 3: An Africa of good governance, democracy, respect for human rights, justice and the rule of law
Aspiration 4: A peaceful and secure Africa
Aspiration 5: An Africa with a strong cultural identity, common heritage, shared values and ethics
Aspiration 6: An Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women and youth, and caring for children.
Aspiration 7: Africa as a strong, united, resilient and influential global player and partner.
Why did World War II play a critical role in the momentum of African independence movements?
What are the main challenges Africa faces today, and how do these challenges impact its development?
How has the African Union’s Agenda 2063 been designed to address the continent’s challenges?
What opportunities and challenges exist for India in building stronger partnerships with Nigeria and other African nations?
How has Africa’s growing importance in global affairs influenced India’s diplomatic and economic strategies?
(Jamal M. Moosa is the chairperson of the Centre for African Studies, SIS, JNU.)
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