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Journalism of Courage
— Raj Shekhar
(The Indian Express has launched a new series of articles for UPSC aspirants written by seasoned writers and scholars on issues and concepts spanning History, Polity, International Relations, Art, Culture and Heritage, Environment, Geography, Science and Technology, and so on. Read and reflect with subject experts and boost your chance of cracking the much-coveted UPSC CSE. In the following article, Raj Shekhar analyses the evolution of agriculture in India.)
As one of the oldest agrarian societies in the world, India’s farming practices have evolved over the years. However, agriculture today stands at a crossroads, with farmers grappling with challenges like climate change, shrinking arable land, depleting freshwater reserves, and rising input costs. How has Indian agriculture evolved, and in what ways it is adapting to contemporary challenges?
Even after 77 years of independence, agriculture continues to play a crucial role in the lives of the people. Both culturally or economically, it remains a mainstay of rural India which constitutes 68% of the total population. While there has been a major shift in agriculture’s contribution to the Gross Value Added in the economy from 61.7% in 1950 to 16.3% in 2020, the proportion of the workforce engaged in agriculture remains high at 46.5% as of 2020 compared to 69.2% in 1950-51.
Post-independence, there have been continuous attempts to improve the condition of Indian agriculture. Major initiatives included the abolition of intermediaries, tenancy reforms, fixing and consolidation of land holdings, the introduction of community development programmes (1952), the establishment of Minimum Support Prices (MSP) through the Agricultural Prices Commission (1965), the Green Revolution (1966), the Evergreen Revolution, Operation Flood, and agricultural diversification. Such ever-evolving efforts have contributed to the unique characteristics of Indian agriculture.
Historically, farming was primarily a means to sustain one’s own needs. However, since independence and particularly after economic reforms, there has been a shift from subsistence to market-oriented farming practices. In subsistence farming, farmers usually raise crops or livestock to fulfil the needs of their families. Subsistence agriculture can be broadly classified into two types – Primitive subsistence agriculture and Intensive subsistence agriculture.
Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation involves clearing vegetation by fire and cultivating the land for 4-5 years before abandoning it. This practice is common in the northeastern states, where it is known as Jhuming, and Odisha and Telangana, where it is called Podu. Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in densely populated regions with monsoon climates.
This form of farming is often characterised by high-yield crops, typically paddy, although other crops like wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are also grown. Wheat cultivation is mainly confined to the northwestern regions, while rice is grown in states such as Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Telangana.
Subsistence farming is labour-intensive as it lacks mechanization due to the small size of land holdings. Organic manure is commonly used and fertilizers and pesticides are rarely applied, which results in relatively low productivity. In addition, there is a high dependence on the monsoon for irrigation, making crop yields vulnerable to fluctuations in rainfall.
According to the Agricultural Census 2015-16, small( 1-2 hectares) and marginal (<1 hectare) land holdings make up over 86% of the total agricultural land holdings in India. However, the average land holding size is just 0.38 hectares for marginal farmers and 1.4 hectares for small farmers.
Major reasons behind the fragmentation of land holdings include rapid urbanization, rising population, limited access to capital, and government policies. This reduction in the size of land holdings has implications for agriculture in terms of limited investment in farming, reduced productivity, low farm mechanization, and issues in sustaining rural livelihood.
Moreover, small and marginal farmers face many challenges in production and marketing. Institutional structures like Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) seek to address such challenges by helping farmers pool their resources. FPOs offer farmers cost-effective, sustainable resources and facilitate market linkages for their produce, helping them to become more self-sustaining.
Another major characteristic of agriculture is its dependence on the monsoon for Irrigation. As per NITI Aayog, 55% of the net cropped area in India is under irrigation, while the rest is dependent on the monsoon for irrigation. The monsoon is a seasonal reversal in wind patterns that leads to changes in precipitation levels.
India is primarily affected by the southwest monsoon between June and September, which is the main source of irrigation during the Kharif season. The southwest monsoon changes its direction in October-November and becomes the northeast or retreating monsoon, bringing rainfall in states such as Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Winter precipitation, which occurs in North India – in Punjab, Rajasthan and parts of Central India – is mostly caused by western disturbances.
However, there are various issues associated with the dependence on the monsoon for irrigation. These include insufficient rainfall in the events of El Nino, excess rainfall (La Nina) causing destruction of crops and flooding, untimely rainfall, and dry spells during the monsoon season.
Farmers usually resort to mixed farming practices, which combine crop cultivation and livestock raising and offer diversification and greater security against climatic shocks. In a significant semi-arid country like India, mixed farming holds immense value. It not only provides profitability but also promotes ecological balance. For example, cattle dung is used as organic manure, while livestock is used for milk, meat, hides, etc.
Over time, there has been a gradual shift towards market-oriented agricultural practices, including diversification and the cultivation of high-value crops. Farmers are increasingly moving away from traditional food crops to non-food crops that offer higher returns, such as horticulture, floriculture, sericulture, viniculture, and apiculture. This shift reflects a structural change in the demand for high-value agricultural products like fruits, vegetables, and meat.
Commercial farming in India is characterised by capital-intensive practices, the use of inorganic and modern inputs, advanced irrigation techniques, and larger landholdings. These trends indicate a move towards more specialised, profit-driven agricultural practices. However, it must be noted that due to the vast geographical expanse and different climatic and physical features, agricultural practices vary widely across different regions.
The evolving nature of Indian Agriculture presents it with various challenges, such as the need for modern agricultural techniques, greater awareness, and better access to extension services. Overuse of fertilisers and inadequate soil conservation has resulted in soil degradation, underlining the potential and need for organic farming. Furthermore, the lack of adequate infrastructure, including storage facilities, cold chains, and poor road networks, causes substantial post-harvest losses.
Another pressing issue is the lack of credit to small and marginal farmers, which limits their ability to invest in essential resources like equipment, quality seeds, and fertilisers. However, the government has introduced various policy measures and schemes to support farmers and improve agricultural practices.
Some of the initiatives are PM-KISAN, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, the formation and promotion of 10,000 FPOs scheme, the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund, the Soil Health Card scheme, the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, Market Intervention Scheme, Micro Irrigation Fund, and Namo Drone Didi.
How has Indian agriculture evolved over time, and in what ways it is adapting to contemporary challenges?
What role has technology played in the evolution of Indian farming methods? How has the shift to market-oriented practices impacted Indian farmers and rural communities?
How have government policies influenced the transition from subsistence to market-driven agriculture in India?
In what ways can organic farming and sustainable practices help mitigate the environmental impact of conventional agriculture in India?
How effective are the government’s initiatives in supporting farmers and improving agricultural practices in the country?
(Raj Shekhar is pursuing his Ph.D. in Geography from Jawaharlal Nehru University.)
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