Journalism of Courage
The first G20 Summit hosted by India was not only a milestone moment for the Indian government but also for Prime Minister Narendra Modi, helping project both as world leaders capable of setting the agenda for global discourse. From a foreign policy standpoint, the adoption of a consensus resolution despite the differences over the Russia-Ukraine conflict and the addition of the African Union to the grouping are the success stories.
Here are the key foreign policy moments under some of India’s previous Prime Ministers.
Jawaharlal Nehru: Non-Aligned Movement
Under Nehru, India developed and led the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), comprising countries which had just emerged from colonial rule seeking to be independent in their decision-making and foreign policy, as regards the two powers, the US and erstwhile USSR. The NAM resolved to support member countries and not choose one side over another in the crises and conflicts emerging at the time due to the Cold War between the USSR and US, which were also engaged in actual conflicts at that point, such as in Korea and Vietnam. Nehru wanted the NAM to maintain economic and strategic autonomy and believed in nuclear disarmament after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The foundation of the NAM was laid at the 1955 Bandung Conference in Indonesia, which Nehru helped organise, and was attended by 28 newly independent nations. Building on this, the NAM was officially founded in 1961 in erstwhile Yugoslavia. The NAM grouping is believed to have helped avert regional conflicts and speed up decolonisation.
Though its influence has waned, the NAM continues to be the largest international grouping, with 120 members, after the United Nations.
Lal Bahadur Shastri: Tashkent Declaration
After the 1965 India-Pakistan over territory in Kashmir, Shastri and then Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Declaration, in present-day Uzbekistan, to “restore normal and peaceful relations” between the neighbours. It necessitated a full withdrawal of armed personnel and established a ceasefire. It marked the first peaceful resolution between the countries and re-established diplomatic and economic ties. Domestically though, the agreement was poorly received in India and Pakistan. In India, many believed that Shastri had made too many concessions.
Eventually, the Tashkent Declaration back home came to be associated with Shastri’s death soon after he had signed it, while still in Russia.
Indira Gandhi: Bangladesh Liberation War and Pokhran-I
In 1971, after a disputed election result in erstwhile East Pakistan led to a declaration of independence by the province, the Pakistani military launched Operation Searchlight to curb the Bangladeshi nationalist movement. By the end of 1971, then PM Indira Gandhi entered the conflict, with some assistance from the Soviet Union, to liberate Bangladesh from Pakistan, which was backed by the US.
The war ended just weeks after India got involved and Bangladesh was recognised as an independent nation by the UN the following year. Consequently, under Indira Gandhi, India took a decisive tilt towards the erstwhile USSR, which also dovetailed with her electoral campaign of the time around “Garibi Hatao”.
Indira’s tenure was also notable for the first successful nuclear bomb test by India, dubbed ‘Smiling Buddha’, conducted at Pokhran in 1974. Pakistan called it an intimidation tactic and India faced international condemnation over the test.
Domestically, though, the test was well-received as another example of Indira Gandhi as a leader who could stand up to the world, and helped propel Indira to another term as the PM.
Morarji Desai: Defence of nuclear programme and dismantling of R&AW
Under Desai, India restored ties with China for the first time since the 1962 war and also improved ties with Pakistan. However, ties with the Soviet Union deteriorated, with Desai pursuing “genuine non-alignment”. A major milestone in the ties with the US was the visit of then American President Jimmy Carter.
But India continued to face condemnation for its 1974 nuclear test. Though Desai assured the international community that India would not develop weapons or conduct future tests, he insisted on keeping its nuclear reactors in place. The US even offered to sell India heavy water and uranium for its reactors, but Desai refused since the deal was conditional on the Americans having access to the facilities to inspect them.
Under Desai, the Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW), the foreign intelligence agency of the country created under Indira Gandhi, was effectively dismantled – its budget was slashed and its chief was sidelined. Desai believed the R&AW was used by Indira to target her political rivals.
Rajiv Gandhi: Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka
Rajiv Gandhi’s term was marked by an increased presence in South Asia. After a civil war broke out in Sri Lanka in 983 between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), which demanded an independent Tamil state, Gandhi offered to intervene with the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in 1987.
Gandhi signed the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord in 1987 with the intention to send Indian forces who would stay out of any military conflict. However, the IPKF eventually got involved in direct combat with the LTTE and was accused of human rights abuses. In 1989, the IPKF was withdrawn.
Gandhi also helped the governments in Seychelles and Maldives, both in the Indian Ocean, avoid coups in 1986 and 1988, respectively, by sending in India troops. In 1988, he also became the first Prime Minister to visit China since Nehru in 1955, marking the beginning of a period of cordial ties.
P V Narasimha Rao: Look East and a growing nuclear programme
Though Rao’s term is notable for liberalisation and its far-reaching reforms, he also took some key steps in foreign policy. He introduced India’s Look East policy, particularly to focus the government’s attention towards Southeast Asia and to counter China’s growing influence in the continent. He improved ties with Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members – particularly in trade relations. Key foreign visits in his term included ones to Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Singapore and Malaysia.
Under Rao, ties with China also improved, and the Line of Actual Control was legally recognised via agreements in 1993 and 1996. He also brought India closer to the US after years of close ties with the Soviet Union.
Rao also oversaw the development of the nuclear programme in preparation for its second major test. But the weapons were not ready for testing before the 1996 election. After Atal Bihar Vajpayee succeeded him, he said, “Rao told me that the bomb was ready. I only exploded it.”
I K Gujral: Gujral Doctrine
Though Gujral’s tenure as the Prime Minister lasted less than a year, he was previously the External Affairs Minister under the H D Deve Gowda-led Janata Dal government and the Ambassador to the Soviet Union. He is most notable for introducing what came to be called the Gujral Doctrine as the External Affairs Minister and continuing it through his tenure as the PM.
The doctrine was a set of five principles to guide India foreign policy with its immediate neighbours. Gujral believed friendly ties with Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the neighbourhood would strengthen India. Notably, Pakistan was not among them. His doctrine said that the neighbours should avoid interfering in the others’ internal affairs, respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, and settle all disputes through peaceful bilateral negotiations. The resolution to the water-sharing dispute between India and Bangladesh in 1996-97, for instance, was reached through his principles.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee: Pokhran-II and Kargil War
In 1998, Vajpayee oversaw five nuclear weapons tests in Pokhran more than two decades after the first test in 1974, bringing India on a par with other nuclear-capable countries, including China. Major powers like the US, the UK, Canada, Japan and the European Union condemned the tests and went on to impose sanctions against India. But Vajpayee stood firm and many of the sanctions were lifted shortly after. The US also pressured the government to sign on to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the Non Proliferation Treaty, which sought to limit the spread of nuclear weapons, but the Indian government refused. India is still not a full signatory on either treaty.
Though early on in his term there were promising signs of a thaw between India and Pakistan, with the Lahore Summit, which expressed a commitment to dialogue and improved trade ties, tensions rose after the Pokhran tests in 1998. Pakistan initially condemned the tests but then went on to conduct its own nuclear tests later that year. Ties deteriorated further after the 1999 Kargil War, which began when Pakistan troops crossed the Line of Control in Kashmir and ended with the success of the Indian Army’s Operation Vijay two months later.
Manmohan Singh: India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement
Though the Manmohan Doctrine, which was diplomacy guided by India’s development and economic priorities, didn’t see much success, Singh’s tenure saw India grow closer to the US.
In particular, the India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement, signed in 2005, was a key achievement. Since India had refused to sign the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the Non Proliferation Treaty, it came to an agreement with the US to separate its civil and military nuclear facilities, giving the International Atomic Energy Agency access to inspect and safeguard the civil facilities. India was recognised as a nuclear-weapons state and granted an exemption by the Nuclear Suppliers Group to move nuclear-related supplies to and from India.
Though the government believed the agreement would help mainstream India’s nuclear programme on the international stage, it created a political storm domestically. However, the move helped improve ties with the US.
