UPSC Key: 25 years of 3 states, Tribunals Reforms Act, and Desi gene editing technology

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance and Polity. 

Mains Examination: General Studies-I, II: Post-independence consolidation and reorganisation within the country, Constitution of India —historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure. 

What’s the ongoing story: The month of November holds a special place in the political history of independent India. 2025 marks the 25th anniversary of the formation of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand—three states that were established in November 2000.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What was the structure of Indian territories under British rule?

— What major changes took place in the structure of Indian states after Independence?

— What were the factors behind the statehood demand of Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh?

— Why did the State Reorganisation Commission reject the Jharkhand demand in 1956?

— Read about the State Reorganisation Commission and its recommendations.

— How have Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand progressed since their creation in 2000, and what challenges still remain?

— How is a new state formed in India?

Key Takeaways:

Adivasi homeland fight won, but battles remain

— Jharkhand was carved out of Bihar on November 15, 2000, the birth anniversary of Birsa Munda, the revolutionary Adivasi leader who led the late 19th-century Ulgulan (“The Great Tumult”).

— The date of its (Jharkhand) formation is significant: the state was the product of a lengthy struggle to protect Adivasi identity and resources. Twenty-five years later, Jharkhand’s foundational promise has only partially been fulfilled. 

— The idea of a sovereign Adivasi territory could be traced to Birsa Munda’s popular slogan: “Abua dishum, abua raj” (Our land, our rule). Throughout the late-18th and 19th centuries, colonial forces upturned the Adivasi way of life in Chhotanagpur. These disruptions led to periodic rebellions, such as the Hul of 1855-56 and the Ulugulan of 1899, which saw Adivasis take up arms against imperial officers and their non-Adivasi collaborators.

— After decades of struggle against Diku moneylenders and zamindars, the Chota Nagpur Tenancy Act was passed in 1908, restricting the transfer of Adivasi land to non-Adivasis. While significant, this was far from the “Abua raj” that Birsa Munda spoke about.

— In 1912, the province of Bihar was carved out from the erstwhile Bengal Presidency, comprising present-day Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha. It was this division which gave birth to demands for a separate Jharkhand.

— The earliest articulations for Jharkhand were made by Theodore Surin, who argued that the region’s culture and way of life were distinct from that of the rest of Bihar. In 1912, J Bartholomen, a Christian from Chaibasa, took part in the Dacca Student Council. Inspired, he would return to his homeland and establish the ‘Catholic Students Organisation’.

— In 1915, this organisation was renamed Chhota Nagpur Unnati Samaj, a title suggested by Bishop Kennedy of the Anglican Mission. The Samaj’s primary objective was the socio-economic progress of Adivasis, and the preservation of their cultural identity — a vision that laid the intellectual foundation for the ‘idea of Jharkhand’.

— In 1928, the Samaj formally submitted a memorandum to the Simon Commission, demanding the creation of a separate province in the Chhotanagpur region. This demand was rejected.

— The 1930s saw the emergence of a number of Adivasi organisations across Chhotanagpur. In 1930, the Chhotanagpur Kisan Sabha, which advocated for farmers’ rights, came up in response to the growing exploitation of ryots by zamindars. In 1933, the Chotanagpur Catholic Sabha and other tribe-specific associations, such as the Ho-Malto Marang Sabha and the Munda Sabha, took shape; each voiced the socio-political concerns of their respective communities.

— Eventually, these organisations united to form the Chotanagpur-Santhal Pargana Adivasi Sabha in 1938, bringing together Ho, Munda, Santhal, and Oraon leaders to one platform. This was a time when the Jharkhand movement transitioned from one calling for social reform to political mobilisation. The creation of Orissa (now Odisha) in 1936, and the lack of Adivasi representation in the Bihar Congress government of 1937 gave impetus to the movement. In 1939, the Sabha became the Adivasi Mahasabha. 

— Over time, Munda understood that the demand for a separate state would not be fulfilled without taking into account the electoral realities of Chhotanagpur. Put simply, Adivasis made up just about a third of the region’s population; for Jharkhand to become reality, the movement would have to appeal to a lot more people.

— With this in mind, the Adivasi Mahasabha was renamed as the Jharkhand Party on December 31, 1949. On January 1, 1950, Munda announced that this party would now be open to both tribals and non-tribals, emphasising unity across castes and communities for the cause of statehood.

— The Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) was born in 1972. It was the product of the merger of three organisations: the Shivaji Samaj of Kurmi-Mahato leader Binod Bihari Mahato, the Marxist Coordination Committee of trade unionist A K Roy, and the Sonot Santhal Samaj of Santal leader Shibu Soren.

— As the JMM became more mainstream, more radical organisations emerged to take its place. As political turmoil gripped India in the 1990s, Jharkhand became a political football for national and regional parties. In 1989, the Centre had formed the Jharkhand Subject Committee, which recommended the administrative division of Bihar; the Jharkhand Area Autonomous Council (JAAC) was established in 1995.

— The bifurcation of Bihar was prima facie to Jharkhand’s benefit: the new state, having inherited the region’s mineral and industrial resources, had a significantly higher per capita income of roughly Rs 10,451 (per annum) compared to Bihar’s 6,554.
— While Jharkhand was created based on the promise of protecting Adivasi identity and improving their economic outlook, the state failed to deliver on this promise: poverty, unemployment and poor health and educational infrastructure continue to hold the state back. This is despite Jharkhand boasting close to 40% of India’s mineral wealth.

Once a punishment posting for bureaucrats, how state made quiet, firm strides

— A sense of alienation fuelled the push for Chhattisgarh in the 1990s. Although a part of undivided Madhya Pradesh, the region was far away from the Bhopal-based administration, both physically and “emotionally”.

— Since attaining statehood on November 1, 2000, Chhattisgarh has had a remarkable journey. But challenges remain.

— Chhattisgarh boasts India’s third largest coal and iron ore reserves. It produces roughly 20% of the country’s steel and aluminium, and 15% of its cement. Roughly 44% of its area is under forest cover. Despite these riches, the state was the most backward part of united Madhya Pradesh.

— The state also is home to a large tribal population: roughly 34% of its citizens belong to one of 42 tribes. “Regions such as Sarguja, Bastar, Raigarh, Bilaspur and Raipur had their own geographical, linguistic and cultural distinctions. Even the tribal communities have their own identities,” said Sushil Trivedi, Chhattisgarh’s first state election commissioner.

— There are similarities in the stories of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand. But Chhattisgarh’s story is distinct. “Chhattisgarh, a tribal-dominated state, had neither a strong religious and spiritual identity like Uttarakhand nor a highly motivated tribal leadership like Jharkhand,” said Sushil Trivedi, 81, a retired IAS officer and Chhattisgarh’s first state election commissioner.

— What fuelled Chhattisgarh’s statehood demand, instead, was the competitive political landscape of the 1990s.

— The state has come a long way since its creation. Its budget rose from nearly Rs 6,000 crore in 2000-2001 to Rs 1.65 lakh crore in 2025-2026 — a 2,650% increase. In 2000, under its first chief minister Ajit Jogi, the government launched decentralised paddy procurement — a move that helped make Chhattisgarh one of India’s top rice producers today.

— Yet, challenges — such as poverty, health, education, and unemployment and a struggle with Maoism– persist.

— Environmental activist Alok Shukla said the state has failed to empower tribals, farmers, and labourers. “Rapid mining and industrialisation have turned the state into a grazing ground for corporations, sharply degrading the environment. Air pollution has worsened in cities such as Korba. Rivers are polluted, groundwater is depleted, temperatures are rising, and man-animal conflicts have increased,” he said.

Home in hills: Created for resources, representation, has left parent state behind in many key metrics

— Uttarakhand marks 25 years of its formation today (November 9). While the demand for a hill state had been sporadically raised even before Independence, the Uttarakhand movement gathered momentum in the 1990s, and the state came into being in 2000, along with Jharkhand (carved out of Bihar) and Chhattisgarh (from Madhya Pradesh).

— Though the earliest demands for special rights for the region date back to 1815 after the East India Company annexed Kumaon, the cause attained prominence in 1938 when Jawaharlal Nehru supported it in the Congress’s special session.

— The demand was revived in 1952, when veteran CPI leader PC Joshi proposed a separate hill state. Over the next four decades, three Chief Ministers of Uttar Pradesh came from Uttaranchal (GB Pant, HN Bahuguna, and ND Tiwari), but all three opposed the creation of a separate hill state while they ruled.

— When the region’s first political outfit, Uttarakhand Kranti Dal, was formed in July 1979, there flowed a steady and popular support for the formation of a hill state. 

— Apart from the aspirations of the hill people, another argument made for a separate state was that Uttar Pradesh was too large to be governed effectively.

— Reasons for demands of Uttarakhand statehood

1. Political representation: Political representation was a grave concern for the hill people. While the neighbouring Himachal Pradesh had 68 constituencies in the Assembly, the Uttarakhand region had 22 seats in the UP Assembly (at the time of state formation) despite having a population similar to HP. The Ramashankar Kaushik Committee, which submitted its report recommending a separate hill state to the Mulayam Singh Yadav government in 1994, recorded this angst.

2. Allocation of resources: Another declaration behind the demand was that the hill region’s resources were being exploited by the rest of UP without adequate recompense or balanced development in return. This was compounded by the perception of the cultural and geographical distance between the “plains-based decision makers” and their lack of knowledge about the hill region, its people and their needs.

— The per capita income of Uttarakhand in 2023-24 was at Rs 2.6 lakh, while that of UP was Rs 93,514. The Gross Domestic Product (constant prices) for the year 2023-24 (2024-25 not available for UP) for Uttarakhand was Rs 2 lakh crore, while UP’s GSDP stood at Rs 14 lakh crore (figures as per Niti Aayog).

— In human development indices, Uttarakhand fares (slightly) better than Uttar Pradesh. As per the National Family Health Survey 5 conducted between 2019 and 2021, the sex ratio at birth in rural UP is 943 (females for every 1,000 male children) and 933 in urban UP. In Uttarakhand, the sex ratio at birth in rural areas is 937 and in urban areas is 1,094.

— Uttarakhand’s education and health sectors have remained largely underdeveloped. In terms of school education deprivation, though Uttarakhand fared better than UP with 4.65 per cent deprived, this figure has seen an increase from NFHS 4, which pointed at a deprivation of 4.37 per cent. The population deprived of education in UP was at 10.91 per cent.

Do You Know:

— Article 3 of the Indian Constitution empowers Parliament to form new states and alter existing states by a simple majority and without the need for the concurrence of the state concerned. 

— Once the government has decided to form a new state and a cabinet decision has been taken, the President is requested to make a reference to the legislature or legislatures of the state(s) involved for their views. 

— A bill needs to be drafted with details on geography, financial status, capital, high court, and division of various elements: assets, infrastructure, human resources, river waters between the old and new states. Once the views are sent,the bill is introduced. Once it is passed by both houses of Parliament and gets the President’s assent,the new state comes into being.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍UPSC Issue at a Glance | As Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand turn 25: The story of how India formed its states

UPSC Prelims Practice Question Covering similar theme:

(1) With reference to the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC), consider the following statements:

1. It was appointed to make recommendations to resolve the linguistic problem in India.

2. The Commission comprised Tej Bahadur Sapru, KM Panikkar, and Vivian Bose.

3. The commission recommended reorganisation of India’s administrative units to form 24 states on linguistic lines and eight centrally administered territories.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 2 only

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

Has the formation of linguistic states strengthened the cause of Indian unity? (UPSC CSE 2016)

 

FRONT

SC invalidates Tribunal Reforms provisions, says Govt brought back clauses removed earlier

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance, Polity and Governance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Constitution of India —historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure. Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and institutions. Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.

What’s the ongoing story: Underlining that “the Constitution is what the Court says it is” and Parliament’s “discretion is broad but not absolute,” the Supreme Court Wednesday struck down key provisions relating to the appointment process in the Tribunals Reforms (Rationalisation and Conditions of Service) Act, 2021, as unconstitutional and violative of separation of powers and judicial independence.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What are tribunals?

— What are the constitutional provisions related to the tribunals?

— What do you understand by the principle of constitutional supremacy?
— What is the doctrine of separation of powers?

— Know about the Tribunals Reforms (Rationalisation and Conditions of Service) Act, 2021.

— What are the concerns related to the Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021?

— What is meant by “legislative overruling” of a judicial verdict?

— How do delays in tribunal appointments affect justice delivery in India?

— What steps should be taken to ensure independence and efficiency of tribunals while maintaining executive accountability?

Key Takeaways:

— The bench of Chief Justice of India B R Gavai and K Vinod Chandran said provisions already struck down by it in an earlier Ordinance had been reenacted in the 2021 law with minor tweaks.

— The ruling is the latest in a series of five judgments since 2010 in which the Supreme Court has struck down government interference in the regulation of tribunals. The judiciary’s rationale is that since the executive is often a party to litigation before tribunals, it cannot be permitted to play a dominant role in appointing their members.

— The search-cum-selection committee proposed under the law is chaired by the Chief Justice of India or a Supreme Court judge nominated by the CJI, and includes two secretaries to the Government of India, and one additional member, who may be the outgoing or sitting chairperson of the tribunal. 

— In case the sitting chairperson seeks reappointment, a retired Supreme Court judge or retired Chief Justice of a High Court nominated by the CJI would be a member. The Supreme Court, in its earlier verdicts, has said that the inclusion of Central government secretaries (whose ministries are often litigants) in the selection committee undermines the impartiality of the process of appointment.

— On July 14, 2021, the Supreme Court, in a 2:1 verdict, struck down certain provisions of the Tribunals Reforms (Rationalisation and Conditions of Service) Ordinance, 2021, relating to the minimum age requirement of 50 for appointment as chairperson or members and fixing their tenure at four years. But in August 2021, the government brought in the Tribunal Reforms Bill, 2021, containing provisions substantially similar to those of the earlier law.

— It said that the impugned Act does not “cure” the law declared earlier, but consciously defies it.

— The bench underlined that “the architecture of our Constitution is firmly rooted in the principle of constitutional supremacy” and not in “judicial supremacy” or “parliamentary supremacy.”

— The Centre had argued that the court cannot test a legislation on the touchstone of “abstract principles,” such as separation of powers or judicial independence. It said only constitutional amendments can be tested on the benchmark of whether they violate the basic structure doctrine.

— The bench said its tests “are not vague, free-floating ideals. They are structural pillars of our constitutional order and integral components of constitutionalism worldwide.”

— The bench reiterated its earlier direction to the Centre to set up a National Tribunals Commission, saying it “is an essential structural safeguard designed to ensure independence, transparency, and uniformity in the appointment, administration, and functioning of tribunals across the country.” It gave the Centre four months for this.

Do You Know:

— The doctrine of separation of powers stands for a form of government in which the mechanism of governance is divided into three branches, namely Legislature, Executive and the Judiciary in the majority of democratic nations. 

— The doctrine of separation of powers evolved with the famous work of Aristotle, The Politics, in which he discussed the concept and stated that every constitution should include different branches of government, namely the judiciary, public officials, and the deliberative branch.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Discord between the Supreme Court and the Centre over tribunals 

📍What is the Doctrine of Separation of Powers?

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

How far do you agree with the view that tribunals curtail the jurisdiction of ordinary courts? In view of the above, discuss the constitutional validity and competency of the tribunals in India? (UPSC CSE 2018)

Now, desi gene editing technology to aid cheaper, commercial GE crop breeding

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology.

What’s the ongoing story: In a boost to indigenous efforts at genome-edited (GE) crop breeding, Indian scientists have developed what is claimed to be a “miniature alternative” to the proprietary CRISPR-Cas proteins-based technology to precisely cut and tweak the DNA of plants.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is genome editing?

— What are CRISPR-associated Cas9 and Cas12a proteins?

— How gene technology is applied in the agricultural sector?

— What is the status of intellectual property (IP) rights in India?

— What is the difference between Genome Editing and Genome Modification?

— Know about the genome-edited rice varieties

— What are the concerns related to genome edited crops?

Key Takeaways:

— The new GE technology — for which the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has recently been granted a patent — deploys the so-called TnpB or Transposon-associated proteins. 

— These, just like the most widely used CRISPR-associated Cas9 and Cas12a proteins, act as “molecular scissors” to cleave the DNA of a gene at a predetermined target site and change its sequence. Such editing is aimed at bringing forth desirable alterations in that gene’s expression and function.

— The CRISPR-Cas technologies are controlled mainly by the Broad Institute (a partnership between the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University) and the US seeds-cum-crop protection chemicals giant Corteva Agriscience. 

— While Broad Institute owns the patents for CRISPR-Cas12a, Corteva has a joint licencing agreement with the former to offer access to CRISPR-Cas9 technology for agricultural applications.

— While scientists have developed rice varieties using CRISPR-Cas technology, they face a major hindrance in commercial cultivation since the intellectual property (IP) rights are with global companies/institutions that may demand license fees. Here’s where indigenous genome-edited crop breeding tools will help.

— The advantage with the TnpB proteins used by Dr Molla’s team is their compactness: They are much smaller, having 400-500 amino acids per molecule, compared with 1,000-1,400 for Cas9 and about 1,300 for Cas12a.

— The bulkiness of Cas9 and Cas12a makes it more challenging to deliver these proteins into the cells where the targeted DNA/genetic material resides. The transfer of Cas proteins is done via agrobacterium tissue culture media.

— GE differs from the more controversial genetic modification or GM, which involves introduction of genes from unrelated species into host plants. These could, for instance, be genes from Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium, that code for the production of proteins toxic to various insect pests in cotton.

— GE entails mere “editing” of genes naturally present in the host plant, leading to mutation or changes in their DNA sequence. No foreign genes or DNA are incorporated here.

— GE has both a “molecular scissors” (whether Cas or TnpB proteins) and a so-called guide RNA that acts as a “navigator”. The latter contains a sequence that is complementary to the target DNA. It, then, guides the Cas/TnpB protein to that specific location/address in the plant genome. Once at the precise target site, the scissors make a cut in the DNA to alter or disable the particular gene.

Do You Know:

— In May 2025, the ICAR announced the release of two GE rice varieties bred by its affiliate institutions, the Hyderabad-based Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR) and the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) at New Delhi.

— These have been named ‘Kamala’ and ‘Pusa DST Rice 1’. They have better stress tolerance, improved yields, and climate adaptability without any compromises with their existing strengths.

— DRR DHAN 100 (KAMALA): Developed by the ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research (ICAR-IIRR), Hyderabad, this variety promises significantly higher yields, improved drought tolerance, and early maturity compared to its parent variety, Samba Mahsuri (BPT 5204).

— According to the ICAR, DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala) has been developed using genome editing technology targeting the Cytokinin Oxidase 2 (CKX2) gene (also known as Gn1a), to increase grain numbers per panicle.

— PUSA DST RICE 1: This new genome-edited variety has been developed over the widely cultivated fine-grain variety called MTU1010 by ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (ICAR-IARI), New Delhi.

— Developed through Site Directed Nuclease 1 (SDN1) genome-editing, the new variety, Pusa DST Rice 1, targets the Drought and Salt Tolerance (DST) gene to improve the plant’s resilience to harsh soil and climate conditions.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍For the first time, 2 new genome-edited rice varieties: Why is this such a major breakthrough for ICAR and India’s agriculture?

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(2) What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC CSE 2019)

(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

 

NATION

Experts red-flag ultra-processed food retail surge

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Government policies and interventions. 

What’s the ongoing story: Ever-increasing consumption of ultra-processed foods is taking a toll on the health of Indians, leading to a surge in medical conditions such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, depressive symptoms, and issues linked to the heart, kidneys, and gastrointestinal system.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What are ultra-processed foods?

— How is obesity measured?

— How is the surge in ultra-processed food sales linked to the increase in obesity and diabetes in India?

— What steps have been taken by the government to nudge youngsters towards healthy dietary practices?

— What policy measures should be taken to control the consumption of ultra-processed foods?

Key Takeaways:

— According to the latest Lancet series, retail sales of ultraprocessed foods in India surged from $0.9 billion in 2006 to nearly $38 billion in 2019, a 40-fold increase. During the same period, obesity cases doubled in India, it says.

— In India, obesity affects one in four people (28.6 per cent), diabetes affects one in 10 (11.4 per cent), prediabetes affects one in seven people (15.3 per cent), and abdominal obesity affects one in three (39.5 per cent), according to ICMR-India data of 2023. Childhood obesity is rising at an alarming rate (from 2.1 to 3.4 per cent between 2016 and 2019-21), according to the National Family Health Survey data.

— In its latest three-paper series authored by 43 global experts, the Lancet study shows how ultra-processed foods are rapidly overtaking the diet pie, a challenge that needs to be tackled with uniform food policies globally. 

— “This worrisome shift is fuelling obesity and other non-communicable diseases. India is witnessing the same shift that the Lancet series warns about,” says Dr Arun Gupta, co-author of the study, and also the convenor, Nutrition Advocacy for Public Interest (NAPI) and former member of PM’s Council on India’s Nutrition Challenges.

— Experts have suggested a nutrition information panel and traffic light labelling, a panel that not only shows the amount of fats, salt, sugar and other nutrients present in a serving of the packaged food but also colours it red, orange or green based on how healthy it is. They have also proposed a star rating based on how healthy the product is at first glance.

Do You Know:

— Ultra-processed foods are those which go through multiple industrial processes, use manufactured ingredients, preservatives and additives rather than whole foods, and are designed to be convenient with a long shelf life. Examples are soft drinks, chips, chocolate, candy, ice-cream, sweetened breakfast cereals, packaged soups, chicken nuggets, hotdogs, fries, ready-to-heat foods and more.

— Ultra-processed foods are associated with an increased risk of 12 health conditions, including obesity, Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, depressive symptoms, heart, kidney, and gastrointestinal diseases, as well as premature death from all causes.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍UPSC Issue at a Glance | Food Safety : 5 Key Questions You Must Know for Prelims and Mains

How fast food is fuelling India’s health crisis

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(3) Aspartame is an artificial sweetener sold in the market. It consists of amino acids and provides calories like other amino acids. Yet, it is used as a low-calorie sweetening agent in food items. What is the basis of this use? (UPSC CSE 2011)

(a) Aspartame is as sweet as table sugar, but unlike table sugar, it is not readily oxidized in human body due to lack of requisite enzymes 

(b) When aspartame is used in food processing, the sweet taste remains, but it becomes resistant to oxidation 

(c) Aspartame is as sweet as sugar, but after ingestion into the body, it is converted into metabolites that yield no calories 

(d) Aspartame is several times sweeter than table sugar, hence food items made with small quantities of aspartame yield fewer calories on oxidation

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

What are the challenges and opportunities of the food processing sector in the country? How can the income of the farmers be substantially increased by encouraging food processing? (UPSC CSE 2020)

 

THE IDEAS PAGE

Global South is redefining credible climate action. COP30 must acknowledge this 

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Important International institutions, agencies and fora- their structure, mandate.

What’s the ongoing story: Shashi Tharoor writes: As COP30 draws to a close in Belém, Brazil, a gateway to the Amazon and the epicentre of planetary hope, the stakes could not be higher. The world’s most vital carbon sink is hosting the planet’s most consequential climate summit. But this is not just a symbolic gesture. It is a moment of reckoning, and potentially, of reimagining. 

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is the significance of COP30?

— What are the challenges related to climate finance that have been raised by India?

— What are the major outcomes of COP30?

— What is the role played by the Global South in taking climate actions?

— Why is the Amazon rainforest significantly important in terms of climate change?

— What is the Belem Health Action Plan?

— What is Loss and Damage Fund?

Key Takeaways:

— As our leading expert, Arunabha Ghosh, has argued, “delivery is now the only currency of trust.” The South is no longer content with pledges and platitudes. It seeks results, and it is increasingly capable of producing them. 

— The tropics lost 6.7 million hectares of primary rainforest last year, largely due to fires, a staggering figure equivalent to erasing the forest cover of a small country. Yet Brazil, through improved satellite monitoring and policy enforcement, recorded an 11 per cent decline in Amazon deforestation between August 2024 and July 2025. 

— The Amazon, estimated to hold between 90 and 140 billion tonnes of carbon, is not a philanthropic cause but a planetary necessity. Its protection is not a gesture of goodwill but a prerequisite for any credible global carbon budget.

— And its partial recovery proves a vital point: the Global South can deliver, when it is empowered to lead. The Belém Health Action Plan for Climate Adaptation in the Health Sector stresses a holistic “One Health” approach, covering animals, people, and ecosystems.

— Forests cover just 31 per cent of the world’s land, and nearly half of that is found in tropical countries. These landscapes are not burdens to be compensated for, but strategic assets. They hold extraordinary biodiversity, dense carbon reserves, and cultural heritage. Yet, they face relentless pressure from agribusiness, mining, and infrastructure development. 

— If the political, financial, and technical architecture can be reimagined to support local stewardship rather than extract value, these forests could anchor a new model of inclusive growth. This is not about charity or compensation. It is about partnership, sovereignty, and shared survival.

— The adaptation finance gap remains the unspoken scandal of climate diplomacy. The United Nations estimates global adaptation needs at US$187 billion to US$359 billion annually. Yet, the funds provided remain a mere fraction of this — often conditional, slow-moving, and disconnected from locally-defined priorities. 

— The Global South needs debt-free grants and compensation, since current financing models rely too heavily on loans, which exacerbates debt burdens. The South must demand not just more money, but smarter money: Finance that supports bio-economies, indigenous rights, community-led conservation, and green value chains, without imposing the North’s templates on us. 

— New instruments like the Loss and Damage Fund and the Santiago Network for technical assistance are steps forward. But they risk becoming symbolic unless backed by a reformed multilateral architecture that focuses on equity, responsiveness, and local agency. 

— The world needs bolder, more transformative national climate action plans… The building blocks already exist in the South — in Brazil’s monitoring systems, India’s solar parks, Indonesia’s peatland restoration, and Nepal’s community forestry. What’s needed is the political will to connect these dots across continents.

— South Asia faces a unique climate paradox. It is among the most vulnerable regions to climate shocks. We are facing every imaginable crisis, from Himalayan glacial melt to coastal inundation, from heat waves to cyclones. Yet, we can also be a laboratory of low-cost, high-impact solutions.

— The old compact — where the North pays and the South complies — is crumbling. In its place, a new compact is emerging: One based on mutual respect, shared innovation, and co-created solutions. COP30 must be where this compact is formalised: Where delivery replaces delay, capability is recognised alongside crisis, and the South’s sovereignty not just acknowledged, but amplified. If the Amazon can bend the curve, so can the rest of us — provided we listen, invest, and believe in the power of South-led change.

Do You Know:

— At COP28 climate conference in Dubai, a loss and damage fund to help vulnerable countries cope with the impact of climate change was officially launched. It was first announced during COP27 in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt.

— The loss and damage fund is a global financial package to ensure the rescue and rehabilitation of countries facing the cascading effects of climate change. 

— The term refers to the compensation that rich nations, whose industrial growth has resulted in global warming and driven the planet into a climate crisis, must pay to poor nations, whose carbon footprint is low but are facing the brunt of rising sea levels, floods, crippling droughts, and intense cyclones, among others. The changing climate has impacted lives, livelihoods, biodiversity, cultural traditions, and identities.

— About 80 countries and organisations came together at COP30 in Belem, Brazil to launch the Belem Action Plan for Health and Climate Adaptation, aimed at strengthening global health systems to cope better with impacts of climate change.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Loss and damage fund approved at COP28 summit: All you need to know

📍$300 mn committed for health impacts of climate at COP30

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

 (4) “Climate Action Tracker” which monitors the emission reduction pledges of different countries is a: (UPSC CSE 2022)

(a) Database created by coalition of research organisations

(b) Wing of “International Panel of Climate Change”

(c) Committee under “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change”

(d) Agency promoted and financed by United Nations Environment Programme and World Bank

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parses (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)? What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC CSE 2021)

 

ECONOMY

New rates, old challenges: Can royalty tweaks fix India’s critical mineral bottlenecks?

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.

What’s the ongoing story: The Union Government has approved revised royalty rates for four critical minerals — graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium — all essential for green energy technologies. It said the move, cleared by the Cabinet Wednesday, would encourage domestic exploration and production, reducing India’s import dependence and shielding the country from supply-chain vulnerabilities.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is the difference between royalty and tax?

— Who has the power to impose royalty tax?

— What are critical minerals?

— What are the initiatives taken by the government to enhance critical mineral ecosystem in India?

— What are the challenges of the supply chain for critical minerals for India?

— What are the structural challenges in India’s critical mineral ecosystem?

— What steps need to be taken to address it?

Key Takeaways:

— The royalty system for graphite has shifted from fixed per-tonne rates to an ad valorem structure, where royalties are charged as a percentage of the mineral’s sale value rather than a flat fee. 

— Graphite with 80% or more fixed carbon – the share of pure carbon that determines its grade – will now attract a 2% royalty on the Average Sale Price (ASP), and lower-grade graphite 4%. Caesium and rubidium will draw a 2% royalty each, and zirconium 1% — a steep cut from the earlier uniform 12% rate.

— ASP refers to the weighted average of ex-mine prices of non-captive mines — those that sell their output in the open market rather than using it internally. The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) publishes ASP every month. 

— The move comes against the backdrop of China’s export restrictions, which for nearly a year disrupted global supply chains. China controls 90% of global critical mineral processing and has imposed curbs on several critical and heavy rare earth minerals amid trade tensions with the US. 

— For India, the stakes are high. Its push for large-scale renewable energy expansion and EV adoption will sharply increase demand for these minerals, which the country still meets largely through imports.

— India is currently 100% import-dependent for some key critical minerals such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, rare earth elements (REEs) and silicon, considered crucial for batteries, solar, semiconductors and advanced electronics.

— The government has maintained that revised royalty rates will attract more bidders for upcoming auctions and help unlock associated minerals such as lithium, tungsten, rare earths and niobium.

— But progress has been slow. Since critical mineral auctions began in 2023, only 34 blocks out of 81 blocks put out for auctions have found successful bidders.

— However, royalty rate revision alone cannot ease structural challenges in India’s critical mineral ecosystem. A paper titled ‘Critical Mineral Supply Chains: Challenges for India’ by the Centre for Social and Economic Progress (CSEP) highlights that India’s ability to mine critical minerals is impeded by a weak regulatory framework, insufficient incentives for private exploration and mining, and limited technical expertise and financial resources for developing deep-seated deposits.

— An equally significant challenge lies in processing. India’s mineral processing capacity for critical minerals is still nascent and it depends heavily on imports of refined minerals and components. 

Do You Know:

— India defines “critical minerals” as those essential for economic development and national security, whose limited availability or concentrated production can expose the country to supply-chain risks. In the 30 minerals India classifies as critical, caesium and rubidium are not included, though they are considered critical by the US (both), Canada (caesium) and South Korea (caesium).

— In January 2025, India launched a National Critical Mineral Mission to help achieve self-reliance in the critical mineral sector. In 2023, the Centre also identified 30 critical minerals, including lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin and copper, which are essential for the country’s economic development and national security.

— The Rs 16,300-crore National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM) is to promote the exploration of critical minerals within the country and at offshore locations. It aims to intensify the exploration of critical minerals within the country and in its offshore areas. It plans to create a fast-track regulatory approval process for critical mineral mining projects.

— According to a report published by the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) in 2024, India’s demand for critical minerals is expected to more than double by 2030, while domestic mining operations may take over a decade to start producing.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Knowledge Nugget: Why is Quad Critical Minerals Initiative important for your UPSC exam

📍Minerals Security Partnership (MSP)

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(5) Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called ‘rare earth metals’. Why? (UPSC CSE 2012)

1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.

2. Other than China, Australia, Canada, and Chile, these elements are not found in any country.

3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral oil in the world. (UPSC CSE 2021)

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PM to attend G20 Summit in South Africa tomorrow	Prime Minister Narendra Modi will be visiting Johannesburg, South Africa, on November 21-23 to attend the 20th G20 Leaders’ Summit, the Ministry of External Affairs announced on Wednesday. This will be the fourth consecutive G20 Summit being held in the Global South. India had hosted the summit in 2023, followed by Brazil in 2024. Indonesia had hosted the summit in 2022. At the Summit, “Prime Minister will put forth India’s perspectives on the G20 agenda. The Prime Minister is expected to speak in all the ‘three sessions’ of the Summit,” the MEA statement said. On the margins of the Summit, the PM is expected to hold bilateral meetings with some leaders, besides participating in the India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) Leaders’ Meeting.

 

PRELIMS ANSWER KEY

1. (a)    2. (a)   3. (d)    4. (a)   5. (c)

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