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Journalism of Courage
— Renuka
The attacks by the US on Iran’s three nuclear sites – Natanz, Isfahan and Fordow – have triggered numerous concerns, including the risk of radiation leaks, with the UN’s nuclear watchdog saying that craters caused by ground-penetrating US bombs were visible at Fordow.
The attacks – the first on any country’s operational nuclear facilities – serve as a stark reminder of the double-edged nature of nuclear technology, and underline the need to revisit its development and regulation both at national and international levels. But first, let’s understand nuclear technology.
Nuclear technology is one of the few innovations that have changed the modern world profoundly and controversially. It involves harnessing nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei through the processes of nuclear fission and fusion.
Nuclear fission is a process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei. It is also associated with the process of radioactive decay as heavier nuclear elements decay into lighter ones. In contrast, nuclear fusion is considered a process of creation as it involves the formation of a new, heavier atomic nucleus from the merger of two lighter and smaller nuclei.
Both processes release a huge amount of energy. While the practical application of nuclear fusion is still under research, nuclear fission has been harnessed for destructive as well as constructive purposes since its discovery in 1938 by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
The first practical application of nuclear fission was the creation of nuclear weapons using Uranium and Plutonium by the US under the Manhattan Project. These weapons were used in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, which led to the beginning of the ‘nuclear or atomic age’.
The unprecedented destruction in the Japanese cities led to an international push to redirect nuclear technology towards peaceful and constructive purposes. Today, nuclear technology stands at a critical crossroads where its potential benefits are immense while risks associated with it, especially nuclear weapons and its misuse, are a vital concern. Some of its benefits include the following:
Energy security and industrial applications – Nuclear technology provides reliable, long-term, and high-capacity electricity with a low-carbon option. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) 2024 report, as of December 2023, global nuclear power capacity stood at 392 gigawatts (GW), generated from approximately 440 reactors. In addition to electricity generation, nuclear energy is used in industrial processes such as district heating and desalination.
Food and agriculture – Nuclear technology also improves agriculture and food security by enabling early detection of animal disease, optimising soil and water use, and controlling pests through environmentally friendly techniques such as Sterile Insect Technique. Apart from this, techniques such as irradiation can enhance crop resilience and ensure food safety.
Healthcare system – Nuclear technology, especially through the field of nuclear medicine, has made vital contributions to the healthcare system. Imaging techniques like Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), and targeted treatment such as radiotherapy and radioisotope therapy are used in cancer diagnosis and care.
Military strategy – Nuclear technology also plays a role in the military strategy of ‘deterrence’, helps in maintaining strategic stability, and provides political leverage. These factors largely reduce the likelihood of nuclear or large-scale wars.
Climate goals – Being a low-carbon option, nuclear technology has the potential to help the world in achieving its climate goals. Considering this, 22 countries (now 31) launched a declaration at COP 28 to triple nuclear energy capacity by 2050. In addition to its low carbon footprints, nuclear energy produces more electricity on less land compared to some other renewable energy sources.
The international regulation of nuclear technology started in 1957 with the establishment of the IAEA as an intergovernmental forum for the peaceful use of nuclear technology. In 1970, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) entered into force with the main objectives of non-proliferation, disarmament, and the promotion of peaceful use of nuclear technology.
It grants Non-Nuclear Weapon States (NNWS) the inalienable right to develop and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes in exchange for their commitment to abstain from acquiring nuclear weapons. Another notable treaty is the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), adopted in 1996, which is a multilateral agreement that bans all nuclear explosions for any purpose in all environments.
In 2021, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons entered into force, banning all nuclear weapon-related activities, including development, testing, production, possession, use, and threat of use. The other significant international arrangements are the Zangger Committee (Non-Proliferation Treaty Exporter Committee), and the Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG), established in 1975. The former maintains a ‘trigger list’ of special fissionable materials, while the latter is a group of nuclear supplier countries that seeks to contribute to the prevention of nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment, and technology.
India’s nuclear programme was developed in 1954 as a unique three-stage strategy aimed at efficiently utilising its limited uranium and abundant thorium reserves through a sequence of advanced nuclear technologies.
The three-stage nuclear programme begins with Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium. The second stage involves Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR) fueled by plutonium and uranium-238 extracted from reprocessed spent fuel. The third stage focuses on advanced reactors designed to harness thorium and aims to achieve long-term energy self-sufficiency.
Currently, the first stage of India’s nuclear programme using PHWRs has achieved commercial maturity. The second stage commenced in 2024 with the development of India’s first Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. The reactor would use thorium along with uranium, thereby harnessing the country’s vast reserve of thorium.
In the budget 2025-2026, the government introduced the ‘Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat’ and allocated Rs. 20,000 crores. The mission focuses on the development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), which will help India achieve its goal of 100 GW of nuclear energy by 2047 in a safer and sustainable way. For this, the government is collaborating with private sector entities and signing civil nuclear deals with countries like the US, Russia and France.
India has a comprehensive legal framework to regulate nuclear technology. Under the Constitution of India, ‘atomic energy’ falls under the Union List, conferring exclusive power on the central government to legislate on the subject. In 1954, the Department of Atomic Energy was established, which is governed by the Atomic Energy Commission, the key policy body for nuclear energy in India.
To strengthen nuclear regulation, the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (which replaced the Atomic Energy Act 1957) was enacted, vesting the central government with the power to produce, develop, use and dispose of atomic energy. It also confers vast power on the government to implement the act by making rules and setting up bodies.
Exercising these powers, the central government has enacted rules on radiation protection and waste management. It also established the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, which oversees and enforces nuclear safety regulations in India.
In addition to this, the Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is responsible for the design, construction, and operation of nuclear power plants. Considering the potential damages related to nuclear operations, the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act was enacted in 2010, which imposes strict liability for any damage on the operators, regardless of fault.
Though nuclear technology is widely regarded as a clean technology with numerous benefits, it is not without significant challenges. Disasters like Chernobyl and Fukushima underscore the need for strict nuclear safety measures. Also, health risks associated with uranium mining and radioactive waste remain persistent concerns in the pursuit of nuclear technology.
Furthermore, in developing countries like India, the usage of nuclear technology in sectors like agriculture and medicine is still at its nascent stage and requires substantial investment in research and development. Nevertheless, by adopting responsible policies, stringent safety protocols and international co-operation, nuclear technology can be harnessed to meet the world’s energy demands and drive scientific progress in a safe and sustainable manner.
What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion in terms of process and energy output?
What are the key goals of India’s three-stage nuclear power programme? Discuss the key benefits of Small Modular Reactors.
How can nuclear energy contribute to achieving global climate targets like net-zero emissions?
What are the risks associated with nuclear energy, and how can they be mitigated through policy and regulation?
What role does the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) play in regulating the peaceful use of nuclear energy?
(Renuka is a Doctoral researcher at Himachal Pradesh National law university, Shimla.)
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