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Journalism of Courage
— Dr. Sarath Sasikumar
(The Indian Express has launched a new series of articles for UPSC aspirants written by seasoned writers and erudite scholars on issues and concepts spanning History, Polity, International Relations, Art, Culture and Heritage, Environment, Geography, Science and Technology, and so on. Read and reflect with subject experts and boost your chance of cracking the much-coveted UPSC CSE. In the following article, Dr. Sarath Sasikumar elaborates the concept of democracy on the occasion of the International Day of Democracy, which is observed every year on September 15.)
Democracy, as a form of government, is unique as it considers the people as the sovereign. This aspect has given it an appeal that has no parallels in history, so much so that even the most authoritarian governments in the world tend to claim themselves as democracies. It has become almost impossible for a regime to claim that they are totally against democracy and believe in the rule of a selected few.
The United Nations General Assembly, expressing the larger consensus among the world nations regarding the desirability of democracy, declared in one of its resolutions in 2007 that it would observe September 15 as the International Day for Democracy. The resolution, titled ‘Support by the United Nations system of the efforts of Governments to promote and consolidate new or restored democracies’, bases itself on the interlinkage and complementarity of democracy, the rule of law and human rights and reiterates the universality of these values.
Thus, it attempts to convey that the high values the United Nations stands for can only be realised by promoting democracy. Over the years, the International Day for Democracy has evolved to be an occasion to inquire into the very concept of democracy, its acceptability, emerging challenges to it, and the myriad ways in which it transforms human lives.
To define simply, democracy is a system of governance where power is vested in the people, either directly or through elected representatives. The term originates from the Greek word dēmokratía, which means “rule by the people”. It emphasises on political equality, where every individual has the right to participate in the decision-making process, by voting, being elected, and freely voicing opinions.
As mentioned earlier, it puts forward and bases itself on the idea of ‘popular sovereignty’, i.e. the belief that sovereignty rests with the people.
Benjamin Franklin famously noted, “In free governments, the rulers are the servants and the people their superiors and sovereigns”. Periodic elections to fill the key governmental posts are considered one of the inevitable features of democracy. Some prominent political scientists have even taken this as the only requirement, thus advancing a minimalist view of democracy.
The most famous among such attempts has been the one by Joseph Schumpeter, who in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1942), proposed a minimalist, procedural definition of democracy. He argued that democracy is a method of political decision-making where individuals acquire power through a competitive struggle for people’s votes. This definition reduces democracy to electoral competition, sidelining broader elements like civil liberties, the rule of law, and participation beyond voting.
But, attempts to define it in broader ways have always been prevalent, many of them stressing the need to identify democracy as a value system, a way of political behaviour, and even as a distinct political culture. For example, John Dewey viewed democracy not just as a form of government but as a way of life and a value system grounded in participation, communication, and the moral development of individuals.
In Democracy and Education (1916), Dewey argued that democracy is about fostering conditions where individuals actively engage in decision-making processes, debate, and dialogue, making democracy more than just voting—it’s a value that permeates everyday interactions and education.
The observance of the International Day for Democracy aligns more with the latter vision and requires the members of the UN to assess their democratic credentials by taking into account the various aspects of democratic life. It’s worth noting that the message of the UN Secretary-General for the day this year reminds us that even when elections are being conducted worldwide, many of the prerequisites for an effective democracy are missing in many polities.
The history of democracy is also interesting, with its own ups and downs, complexities, and transitions. The earliest and most famous form of democracy emerged in Athens in the 5th century BCE. However, ancient democracies in the non-Western world are also being increasingly explored, at times with active support of governments which would like to show that they have a long tradition of being ‘democratic’.
India has recently claimed to be the ‘mother of democracy’ pointing out the existence of non-hereditary rulers and deliberative councils in ancient times. Similar claims are being made by some other countries too. Once again, this underscores how democracy remains a hegemonic idea of our times, with different nations staking their claims about the antiquity of their democracies so that their early exposure to this virtuous form of rule can be asserted.
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However, the emergence of modern democracies is inextricably linked to the European Enlightenment. The Enlightenment period marked a revival of democratic ideas, as thinkers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu laid the groundwork for modern liberal democracy. Locke’s social contract theory posited that legitimate political authority comes from the consent of the governed, while Rousseau argued for popular sovereignty. Montesquieu introduced the idea of the separation of powers to prevent tyranny.
At the level of practice, the Enlightenment ideas inspired the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789), leading to the establishment of republics based on democratic principles. These new democratic experiments, while limited by property and gender-based restrictions, embodied ideals of individual rights, representative government, and the rule of law.
Delineating the expansion of democracy at different periods of history, Samuel Huntington talks about the ‘Three Waves of Democracy’. The first wave occurred from 1828 to 1926 and began with the extension of suffrage in Western Europe and North America. During this period, democratic institutions started to take root, particularly in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and other parts of Europe.
The second wave happened from 1943–1962. Following World War II, many former colonies gained independence and established democratic governments, while some European countries democratised after the defeat of Nazi and fascist regimes. The third wave began with the Carnation Revolution in Portugal (1974) and spread through Southern Europe (Greece, Spain), Latin America (Brazil, Argentina), Asia (South Korea, the Philippines), and eventually Eastern Europe after the fall of the Soviet Union (1989–1991). During this phase, many dictatorial regimes fell and democracy became the form of government.
The fall of the Communist bloc was considered the irreversible and final victory of liberal democracy by many, prompting Francis Fukuyama to talk about ‘the end of history’. But, new challenges have emerged to the working of liberal democracies, which demands novel solutions from the part of those who wish democracy to continue flourishing. Many of the contemporary thinkers, including Fukuyama himself, now try to grapple with the threats of populism, identity politics, and the rise of ethnic democracies.
The concept of the rule of law, and the institutions that ensure fairness in democracy are being increasingly attacked in the charged, emotion-driven, and chauvinistic political atmosphere that has come up in some parts of the world. Also, there is a palpable trend in some countries to convert ethnic majorities to permanent electoral majorities, and thus alter the very nature of existing democratic systems.
Such homogenisation could make deleterious impacts on freedom of speech, religion, and assembly, which are essential for the free expression of ideas and dissent. The debates around these new challenges to democracy may transform how democracy is practised, establish new anti-democratic camps, and pose new philosophical challenges to democracy.
The observance of the International Day for Democracy this year focuses on a more recent and important challenge- that of Artificial Intelligence.
The UN Secretary-General rightly points out that whereas AI can enhance public participation, equality, security and human development, it can also have negative implications for democracy, peace and stability. He mentions the role it can play in spreading misinformation and hatred.
The transformative power of democracy is imprinted in the history of India, more than that of any other country. Here, democracy started as an elite-driven, ambitious project, whose sustainability was repeatedly under question.
But, over time, democracy at the level of politics has been used creatively by hitherto oppressed sections to advance their emancipatory efforts, which in turn, helped democracy to make its roots deeper and get further entrenched. This has been vividly illustrated by eminent political scientist Javeed Alam in his work, Who Wants Democracy?.
The transformative potential of the Constitution is being increasingly tapped, and its egalitarian vision is being increasingly reclaimed, both through political struggles and litigations. This shows the significance of democracy in conditions where social hierarchies are still deep-rooted. Let the observance of International Day for Democracy initiate more vibrant debates on deepening democracy in our social life.
The centrality of popular sovereignty contributes to democracy’s unparalleled appeal throughout history. Evaluate.
Discuss the basis of India’s claim to be the ‘mother of democracy’. How does it relate to the existence of non-hereditary rulers and deliberative councils in ancient times?
BR Ambedkar saw democracy as a constitutional value to protect against structural inequalities, while Mahatma Gandhi advocated for democracy as a social value rooted in traditional morality and religious co-existence. Comment.
How can Artificial Intelligence enhance public participation, equality, and security while also posing risks to democracy, peace, and stability?
Democracy: A Very Short Introduction by Naomi Zack.
Democracy by Robert A. Dahl.
Democracy as a Universal Value by Amartya Kumar Sen.
Democracy’s Third Wave by Samuel P. Huntington.
The Populist Challenge to Liberal Democracy by William A. Galston.
(Sarath Sasikumar is a Guest Lecturer at the Department of Political Science in Sree Kerala Varma College.)
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