UPSC Key: PM Modi’s France visit, Brain-eating amoeba and Assam-Nagaland pact

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.

What’s the ongoing story: Tech and innovation are expected to dominate the bilateral agenda at Bharat Innovates 2026, to be inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French President Emmanuel Macron, in Nice, France, on Sunday. The event will bring together top innovation startups from India, France and the world. 

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is Bharat Innovates 2026?

— Know the historical background of the India-France relations.

— What are the areas of cooperation between India and France?

— What do you understand from the elevation of bilateral ties to a Special Global Strategic Partnership?

— What are the recent agreements signed between both countries?

— What is the significance of G7 for India?

— Which countries comprise the G7?

— Know the history of formation of G7

Key Takeaways:

— Bharat Innovates 2026, being held during India-France Year of Innovation, reinforces the vibrant innovation partnership between the two countries. More than 120 Indian companies/startups and prominent business leaders, investors and CEOs from France and other countries are expected to participate in the event.

— PM Modi reached Nice on Saturday as part of his five-day tour to France and Slovakia. He will be in Nice for two days (June 13-14), then travel to Slovakia from June 14-16 and return to France for a two-day stay — June 16-18 — at Evian and Paris. He will hold the first bilateral summit with President Macron in Nice on Sunday after the elevation of ties to a ‘Special Global Strategic Partnership’.

— With the war in West Asia leading to US blockade of ships going to or from Iranian ports through the Strait of Hormuz, Modi and Macron are also expected to discuss the ways and means of restoring freedom of navigation in the Strait.

— Ahead of the meeting, PM Modi said in his departure statement, “France occupies a special place in India’s strategic vision. Earlier this year, President Macron visited India and we elevated our relationship to a Special Global Strategic Partnership. When I meet President Macron in Nice, we will review the progress made since February, and chart the next steps in our cooperation. I look forward to our discussions on pressing global issues of mutual interest as well.”

 — This is the 7th official visit of PM Modi to France since 2014, and follows the visit of the French President to India in February this year.

— In Evian, PM Modi will participate in the G7 Summit on June 16-17. Officials said India’s presence at the G7 reflects its standing as a leading voice of the Global South and a key partner in addressing shared global challenges.

— “This is the 8th consecutive G7 Summit to which India has been invited. At the G7, India will not only speak for itself, but it will also give voice to the aspirations of the Global South,” Modi said in his statement.

Do You Know:

— At a time when the world has become unpredictable and volatility is the norm, trust has become a rare commodity. In the case of India and France, the strategic trust, built over years of the strategic partnership, has matured in fields as critical as defence, nuclear energy and space.

— Defence: The India-France defence collaborations run deep and wide, spanning the entire spectrum from air and naval assets to helicopter engines and missiles. Some flagship examples of cooperation include the Rafale aircraft, Scorpene submarines and Shakti helicopter engines.

— Space: In this sector, there is the rich legacy of six-decade-old cooperation between ISRO and the French national space agency CNES. The highlights include joint launches, development of satellites such as Megha-Tropiques and SARAL, and collaboration in India’s human spaceflight mission Gaganyaan. The two are also looking at another satellite mission, TRISHNA.

— Nuclear: With the passing of the Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India (SHANTI) Act, there is a great opportunity for collaboration among Indian and French industry. On Small Modular Reactors/Advanced Modular Reactors, India and France signed a Declaration of Intent on cooperation in this sector in February 2025.

— Tech: Tech partnerships are built on a high-level of trust. As an Indian diplomat told The Indian Express: “One will never hand one’s phone to a stranger or a person who one doesn’t trust fully. The same holds true for high-level tech partnership, where high-level trust and confidence is needed between governments, systems and leaders. That’s how the India and France tech partnership has matured.”

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍How trust underpins India’s ties with France

📍Our partnership strong, says Macron as India-France Year of Innovation is launched”

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(1) Consider the following countries: (UPSC CSE 2015)

1. China

2. France

3. India

4. Israel

5. Pakistan

Which among the above are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT)?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only

(c) 2, 4 and 5 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

What can France learn from the Indian Constitution’s approach to secularism? (UPSC CSE 2019)

THE SECOND PAGE

Brain-eating amoeba cases see surge in Kerala,133 this year

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Health and diseases, Science. 

What’s the ongoing story: A decade after detecting its first amoebic meningoencephalitis case in 2016, Kerala is seeing an alarming surge in the fatal infection, with 133 positive cases and 33 deaths in the first five months of 2026. 

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is amoebic meningoencephalitis? 

— What is granulomatous amoebic encephalitis?

— Read about the primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) ?

— What is Naegleria fowleri?

— What is the difference between PAM and GAE?

— How does Naegleria fowleri infect people?

— What are the factors behind the rising cases of Brain-eating amoeba in Kerala?

— What steps should be taken to strengthen India’s preparedness against emerging infectious diseases?

Key Takeaways:

— A major chunk of the cases, according to the health department, are granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), caused by Acanthamoeba, a free-living amoeba found mainly in contaminated water. 

—Kerala’s figures stand out in sharp contrast to the number of detected cases in other states and abroad. Since the first recorded case of PAM in 1971, India had reported only around two dozen cases till 2023. Research papers on PAM state that only 381 cases were reported globally between 1965 and 2018.

— According to Kerala Director of Health Services Dr K J Reena, the spike in cases is mainly due to the state’s rigorous testing of all unidentified encephalitis cases.

— The DHS said that earlier, most amoebic meningoencephalitis cases were Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM), caused by Naegleria fowleri.

— “Now, the PAM cases have come down in Kerala and most of the cases detected are GAE, caused by another free-living amoeba called Acanthamoeba, which is ubiquitous in water bodies, soil and even dust. Apart from the tropical climate of the state, poor quality of water is a contributing factor for the increased presence of this amoeba. Our water bodies have vegetation, which is another conducive factor for the increased presence of Acanthamoeba. Most of the affected persons are aged ones with compromised immunity. PAM has a global fatality rate of 97 per cent but GAE has a better survival rate,” she said.

— In 2024, the Kerala health department designed a special treatment protocol and a standard operating procedure for the management of amoebic meningoencephalitis cases — becoming the first state in India to do so. This also helped early detection and reduced the mortality rate. 

— The first Indian to survive the fatal infection was a 14-year-old in Kerala in 2024, and he was the 11th PAM survivor in the world.

— Dr Anoop, who was instrumental in detecting the first Nipah case in Kerala in 2018, said water contamination can lead to an increased presence of Acanthamoeba.

— “Water quality is very poor in Kerala. High population density leads to contamination of water. Many households have their toilet pits close to open wells. Water bodies with high coliform bacterial counts are more likely to have a strong presence of Acanthamoeba, which feeds on various bacteria including E. coli,” he said, calling for a detailed environmental study.

Do You Know:

— PAM is a non-communicable rare brain infection that is caused by Naegleria fowleri. Naegleria is an amoeba, a single-celled organism, and only one of its species, called Naegleria fowleri, can infect humans, according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). It is a free-living amoeba and was first discovered in Australia in 1965. 

— Naegleria fowleri lives in warm fresh water, such as lakes and rivers, swimming pools, splash pads, surf parks, or other recreational venues that are poorly maintained or minimally chlorinated.

— The amoeba infects people when it enters the body through the nose, usually when people are swimming. It then travels up to the brain, where it destroys the brain tissue and causes a primary amebic meningoencephalitis.

— The initial symptoms of PAM include headache, fever, nausea, and vomiting. Later on, the patient may experience a stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, and slip into a coma.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Knowledge nugget of the day: Brain-eating amoeba

📍How common is primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, and does it occur more during the monsoon season?

UPSC Prelims Practice Question Covering similar theme:

(2) With reference to the Naegleria fowleri, consider the following statements:

1. It lives in warm saline water.

2. It infects people when it enters the body through the nose.

3. Primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) is caused by Naegleria fowleri.

How many of the statements given above are correct?

(a) Only one

(b) Only two

(c) All three

(d) None

NATION

DRDO demonstrates ballistic missile defence capability

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance. 

Mains Examination: General Studies-III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology. 

What’s the ongoing story: In a significant development earlier this week, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully tested a Multi-layered Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) capability. 

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is the difference between a missile and a ballistic missile?

— Cruise Missiles and Ballistic Missiles: How Are They Different?

— What are Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs)?

— What is the Naval Anti-Ship Missile-Medium Range?

— What is the significance of BMD capability?

— What is the history of missile technology in India?

— What kind of missiles does India have?

Key Takeaways:

— This system can engage targets including Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). With this advancement, India joins an elite group of nations that possess the ability to defend against ICBMs.

— The DRDO, on June 10 and 11, conducted three consecutive flight tests to demonstrate multi-layered defence against long-range ballistic missiles and anti-ship capability at medium range, the Defence Ministry said in a statement.

A missile during a flight test conducted by the Defence Research and Development Organisation. (PTI)

— The Multi-layered BMD capability was successfully demonstrated during the tests, which were conducted on June 10 and 11. “The interceptors successfully engaged their respective targets. The systems are designed and developed with the latest technologies to address the emerging missile threats,” it said.

— The maiden flight test of the Naval Anti-Ship Missile-Medium Range (NASM-MR) was also carried out successfully, it said, adding that the flight-tests were witnessed by senior officials of DRDO and defence forces.

Do You Know:

— Ballistic missiles use projectile motion to deliver warheads to a target. They are powered for a relatively brief time, after which they let the laws of physics take them to their target. These missiles are categorised based on range.

— Ballistic missiles can carry either nuclear or conventional warheads. Examples of ballistic missiles are Agni I, Agni II, Prithvi I, Prithvi II and Dhanush missiles. 

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(3) Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023)

1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

A stray tigress makes a new home, giving a struggling, Chhattisgarh reserve hope of revival

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance. General issues on Environmental ecology, Biodiversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization.

Mains Examination: General Studies-III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.

What’s the ongoing story: A four-year-old tigress that wandered into Chhattisgarh’s Udanti-Sitanadi Tiger Reserve (USTR) earlier this year and stayed through the scorching summer months has kindled fresh hopes for a reserve that has watched its tiger population vanish over the past three decades.

Key Points to Ponder:

— How do tigers function as an umbrella species and why is their conservation critical for biodiversity?

— What is the conservation status of Tiger?

— What is Project Tiger?

— Know about the Udanti-Sitanadi Tiger Reserve in detail.

— Read about the National Tiger Conservation Authority. 

— What are the major tiger reserves in India?

— What is the distribution of tigers in India?

— What are the areas of concern regarding tiger conversation?

— Map work: Locate Udanti-Sitanadi Tiger Reserve and Achanakmar Tiger Reserve on map.

Key Takeaways:

— For forest officials, the tigress’s decision to remain in the reserve through the harshest season of the year, when water and prey become scarce, is being seen as a sign that the habitat may once again be capable of sustaining a breeding tiger population.

— The optimism stems partly from a success story elsewhere in Chhattisgarh. At Achanakmar Tiger Reserve, a tigress named Jhumri played a key role in reviving the big cat population after years of decline. Its arrival and subsequent breeding helped boost tiger numbers in the reserve, offering conservationists a rare example of natural recovery in the state. Udanti-Sitanadi, however, has had a far more troubled trajectory.

— In 1998, the then Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary was home to 18 tigers. By 2006, that number had fallen to just three. During the same period, the population of wild buffaloes — Chhattisgarh’s state animal — crashed from around 80 to seven. Today, only one wild buffalo survives in the reserve.

The arrival of the tigress “Paheli” in January has emerged as a rare bright spot.

— The decline was not limited to tigers and buffalo. Populations of panthers, gaur, sambar, nilgai, spotted deer and wild boar also dwindled over the years.

— In 2009, the state government merged the Udanti and Sitanadi sanctuaries, spread across 1,842.54 sq km, and notified them as a tiger reserve. Tiger numbers briefly rose to eight, but the gains proved short-lived. By 2023, no resident tiger remained in the reserve, which had effectively become a transit landscape for dispersing big cats.

— Against this backdrop, the arrival of the tigress in January has emerged as a rare bright spot. Because the animal does not match any tiger officially recorded in India by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), forest officials have named it “Paheli” (riddle).

— The reserve is also undergoing habitat improvement works in anticipation of future tiger translocations. More than 500 hectares of grassland are being developed, and water bodies are being created to improve water availability for wildlife.

— After receiving approval from the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) to translocate one male and two female tigers from neighbouring Madhya Pradesh, forest officials have focused on improving prey availability — a key condition flagged by the NTCA for the reserve’s revival.

— Alongside efforts to restore tiger numbers, authorities are also attempting to revive the wild buffalo population. Three female wild buffaloes have been brought from Assam and are expected to be released into the reserve soon.

Do You Know:

— A tiger reserve in India is a designated area established under the Project Tiger initiative to ensure the conservation of tigers and their habitats. These reserves are part of the government’s efforts to protect the tiger population, maintain biodiversity, and restore ecological balance.

— The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change constituted under enabling provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, for strengthening tiger conservation, as per powers and functions assigned to it under the said Act.

— The IUCN status of the tiger is endangered, and it is protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍UPSC Issue at a Glance | Why Tigers Matter: Environmental, cultural, and economic significance of India’s apex predator 

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(4) Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”? (UPSC CSE 2020)

(a) Corbett

(b) Ranthambore

(c) Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam

(d) Sundarbans

(5) The term ‘M-STrIPES’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC CSE 2017)

(a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna

(b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves

(c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System

(d) Security of National Highways

ECONOMY

Why an Assam-Nagaland pact raises hopes of higher oil & gas output from Northeast

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Government policies and interventions, Energy.

What’s the ongoing story: The Union government, Assam and Nagaland Thursday signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) that paves the way for the resumption of oil and gas exploration along the resource-rich and contested boundary of the two states after three decades. 

Key Points to Ponder:

— Why is energy security important for India?

— What is the importance of the Assam–Nagaland oil and gas exploration agreement?

— How can domestic oil and gas exploration strengthen India’s energy security?

— What are the challenges related to oil and gas exploration in India?

— How is the Northeast important for India’s energy security?

— Know about the West Asia crisis and its impact on India’s energy security.

Key Takeaways:

— The Northeast is considered the birthplace of India’s oil and gas industry and Assam is among India’s major oil and gas producing states.

— India depends on imports to meet over 88% of its crude oil needs and about half of its natural gas requirement, and the government has been pushing for more domestic exploration and production activities to reduce the heavy reliance on energy imports. This agreement is part of that effort, and comes as a time when the country is grappling with high prices of imported oil and gas, as well as supply constraints, owing to the effective closure of the Strait of Hormuz amid the West Asia war.

— High hydrocarbon imports have left the Indian economy vulnerable to international price and supply shocks. They also have a bearing on the country’s trade deficit, foreign exchange reserves, the rupee’s exchange rate and inflation, among other metrics. The government has implemented several policy reforms to encourage investments in India’s oil and gas exploration and production sector.

— Although these “upstream” activities have long gestation periods, the agreement could augment the country’s domestic oil and gas production in the medium to long term. 

— According to officials aware of the matter, the MoU specifically targets the disputed area belt, or DAB, along the Assam-Nagaland border. With the MoU in place, oil and gas exploration and production are expected to gather pace across more than 1,000 sq km along the Assam-Nagaland border.

— Oil, gas, and mineral exploration activities have remained suspended in the DAB for three decades owing to law and order issues amid boundary disputes between the two states. The DAB is expected to contain promising hydrocarbon prospects.

— According to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), the MoU establishes a coordinated framework for facilitating mineral oil operations in the area, ensuring operational continuity, safety and security of personnel and assets, and effective coordination among all stakeholders. 

— The framework is expected to support exploration and production activities, encourage investment in the upstream petroleum sector and contribute towards the country’s energy security objectives, it said.

— According to the MHA release, Shah said that the MoU could potentially help increase oil production capacity from the Northeast from the current capacity of 1,000–1,500 barrels per day by more than tenfold, adding that the region also possesses “and immense wealth of minerals”.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Significance of the Gulf Region in India’s Energy Security

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyse India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian countries. (UPSC CSE 2017)

Why US has barred foreigners from accessing Anthropic’s latest AI models

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Government policies and interventions, Challenges to internal security through communication networks, basics of cyber security, Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers and issues relating to intellectual property rights. 

What’s the ongoing story: Anthropic has suspended all foreign access to its most advanced artificial intelligence (AI) models — Fable 5 and Mythos 5 — after the US government issued an export control order citing national security concerns. 

Key Points to Ponder:

— What are Fable 5 and Mythos 5?

— What are frontier AI models? 

— What are the benefits and risks of using advanced AI models?

— What is Project Glasswing?

— How is AI currently governed?

— What are the challenges associated with the regulation of AI?

— What has been India’s response to demands for AI regulation?

Key Takeaways:

— Export controls are typically used to restrict the supply of physical goods to other countries, such as advanced US graphics chips to China.

— But the latest order goes beyond physical goods to dictate how software can be launched and distributed.This marks a new chapter in the complicated relationship between the US government and Anthropic and, more importantly, raises questions about the limits of AI if a government order simply cut off access to it.

— Anthropic said that it received the US government’s order early on June 13, but the communication did not provide specific details of the administration’s national security concerns. According to the company, the government possibly believes that it has become aware of a method of bypassing, or “jailbreaking” Fable 5.

— In a blog post, the company said that the order would block all access to Fable 5 and Mythos 5 by any foreign national, whether inside or outside the United States, including foreign national Anthropic employees.

— Fable 5 and Mythos 5, launched earlier this week, are Anthropic’s most advanced publicly available AI models. They are built on the underlying “Mythos-class” architecture – the company’s other AI model named Mythos Preview which it has not released publicly over fears of misuse.

— Anthropic had previously claimed that Mythos Preview was able to find severe vulnerabilities in “every major operating system and web browser”, including one that had gone undetected for nearly three decades — spooking regulators around the world for its potential impact on critical infrastructure.

— The company had started giving exclusive access to a select few organisations under its Project Glasswing. In India, Anthropic was discussing sharing Mythos Preview with a handful of entities, but was yet to share the model. 

— Since the company was not able to publicly release Mythos Preview, it announced earlier this week that it would launch Fable 5 and Mythos 5 instead, which are both based on the same underlying model, but have additional safeguards baked in. In particular, requests related to sensitive cybersecurity or biological domains are filtered.

— When the system detects a potentially high-risk query, it automatically routes the user to a less capable model rather than allowing the request to be handled by the full Mythos-level system.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍What is Claude Mythos, and why is Anthropic limiting its rollout?

📍Anthropic launches Project Glasswing to test advanced AI for cybersecurity

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(6) With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2020)

1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units

2. Create meaningful short stories and songs

3. Disease diagnosis

4. Text-to-Speech Conversion

5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

(b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(c) 2, 4 and 5 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Previous year UPSC Main Question Covering similar theme:

Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare? (UPSC CSE 2023)

ALSO IN NEWS

• Lt Gen Dhiraj Seth next Army chief, first from Armoured Corps in 30 yrs

— Lieutenant General Dhiraj Seth will be the next Chief of the Army Staff, the Ministry of Defence announced Saturday.

— An Armoured Corps officer, Lt Gen Seth is currently serving as the Army’s Vice Chief. He will take over as the COAS on June 30 when current Army chief, General Upendra Dwivedi, retires from service. 

Lieutenant General Dhiraj Seth is an alumnus of the National Defence Academy and an Armoured Corps officer. (Photo: X/Defence Ministry)

— Lt Gen Seth will be the third Army chief from the 2nd Lancers, one of the oldest armoured regiments in the country, and the first Armoured Corps officer to be appointed Army chief in the last 30 years after General Shankar Roy Chowdhury (1994-97).

• Sole MCO plan gets pushback from Grid India, IEX

— Supporting the rollout of a market coupling mechanism in India — that seeks to discover uniform electricity price across exchanges — Grid Controller of India (Grid India) has called for establishment of a steering committee comprising key stakeholders to act as Market Coupling Operator (MCO).

— In its draft CERC (Power Market) (Second Amendment) Regulations, 2026, issued in April, the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) had proposed designating Grid India as the sole MCO, responsible for the operation and management of market coupling.

— While Power Exchange India Ltd (PXIL) and Hindustan Power Exchange Ltd (HPX) have supported designation of Grid India as MCO, Indian Energy Exchange (IEX) —  the country’s biggest power trading bourse — opposed the draft regulations’ proposal.

— India currently has three power exchanges regulated by CERC, where generators, distribution companies, traders and large consumers buy and sell electricity. IEX dominates the market with over 90% share, while PXIL and HPX account for the remainder.

• Inside two of India’s oldest legislatures, a legacy of reforms

— Modern legislative institutions in India can trace their beginnings to the presidency towns of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. It was in these cities that the East India Company’s trade, administration, and law-making were carried out by a small council of the company’s officers, meeting in council rooms/houses. Over time, the British Parliament began to take an interest in India.

— Calcutta became the seat of British administration, with the Governor General at the helm of affairs. He was advised by a four-member council, and later, a law member joined this group. The British government also set up provincial councils, but it was not until the 1919 reforms that modern national and provincial legislatures were created. Then, in 1921, the Duke of Connaught came to hunt tigers and to inaugurate the legislatures being set up under these reforms. He inaugurated the provincial legislatures in Madras and Calcutta, and finally the national legislature in Delhi.

— Legislative institutions are defined by the passionate debates of legislators and identified by the buildings where these debates take place. In Madras, the Tamil Nadu Legislature meets in a building located inside Fort St George. The location is unique because both the legislature and the executive are within the same compound.

— The Bengal assembly has a British-style ceremonial mace that signifies the authority of the House. It is still in use, kept in front of the Speaker when the assembly is in session. A painting in the building depicts a pre-Independence scene, showing barefoot, liveried Indian men carrying the mace ahead of British officers wearing shoes. (The Tripura legislature also has a mace, and in 2019, an MLA ran off with it as a sign of protest.)

— The Bengal assembly was always at the forefront of technological innovation. Shortly after Independence, it began recording the audio of its debates. It was also the first to introduce machine voting in its proceedings. The success of machine voting in the Bengal legislature (albeit with a few hiccups) led to the technology’s adoption in the Parliament of India. The assembly also became the first to implement a comprehensive system of subject committees to ensure government accountability — a mechanism later adopted by the national parliament.

PRELIMS ANSWER KEY

1. (a)  2. (b)  3. (d)   4. (c)  5. (b)  6. (b) 

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