UPSC Key: India buying Iranian crude, reliance on coal, and floods and landslides in Afghanistan

Key Points to Ponder:

— What is the status of the US-Israel vs Iran war?

— Know about the portfolio of India’s crude oil imports.

— What is the strategic importance of the Strait of Hormuz for India’s energy security?

— What is the status of strategic petroleum reserves in India?

— India’s dependence on crude oil imports from Iran: what do you know so far?

— Know the history of US sanctions on Iranian crude.

— What is the significance of Iran for India?

— What diplomatic challenges can India face in balancing its ties with Israel, the US and Iran?

— Map work: Locate Iran, Israel, Oman, the Strait of Hormuz, Israel, and other places in the news related to the US-Israel vs Iran war on the map.

Key Takeaways:

— This is the first official confirmation from the government that India is buying Iranian crude, following the sanctions waiver for Iranian oil on water announced by the US last month. 

— The government also confirmed that a tanker carrying 44,000 tonnes of Iranian liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) berthed at Mangalore on April 2 and is currently discharging the cargo. It also reiterated that India’s “crude oil requirements remain fully secured for the coming months”.

— Eswatini-flagged tanker Ping Shun with around 600,000 barrels of Iranian oil, which was approaching the Vadinar port in Gujarat, late Thursday changed its declared destination to Dongying in China’s Shandong province. Trade sources had indicated that payment-related issues could be the reason behind the diversion. For nearly seven years now, India has not imported Iranian oil, and this was expected to be the first delivery.

— “India imports crude oil from 40+ countries, with companies having full flexibility to source oil from different sources & geographies based on commercial considerations. Amid Middle East supply disruptions, Indian refiners have secured their crude oil requirements, including from Iran; and there is no payment hurdle for Iranian crude imports, contrary to the rumours being circulated,” the Petroleum Ministry said in a post on social media platform X.

— On Ping Shun’s diversion, the ministry said that in international oil trade, bills of lading often carry indicative discharge port destinations and on-sea cargoes can change destinations “mid-voyage based on trade optimisation and operational flexibility”. 

— Amid the raging West Asia war, the US on March 21 suspended for a month the sanctions on Iranian crude already loaded on tankers in a bid to allow as many barrels of oil as possible to flow into the international market to improve the global oil supply situation and curb spiraling crude oil prices.

— The waiver from Washington was similar to the one issued for Russian oil earlier in March. India hasn’t imported Iranian crude since May 2019 due to reimposition of US sanctions on Tehran by the first Trump administration.

— Vessel movements through the Strait of Hormuz have effectively been halted due to the conflict that began on February 28; Iranian oil shipments have continued unabated though. The Strait accounted for one-fifth of global oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG) flows.

— Around 2.5–2.7 million bpd of India’s crude imports—around half of the overall oil imports—have transited the Strait in recent months, while the longer-term average is around 40%. India depends on imports to meet over 88% of its requirement of crude oil.

Do You Know:

— Oil imports top India’s merchandise imports, and the heavy reliance on imported crude oil makes its economy vulnerable to global oil price fluctuations. This also impacts the country’s trade deficit, foreign exchange reserves, the rupee’s exchange rate, and inflation rate, among others.

Iran has effectively blockaded the Strait of Hormuz, the chokepoint through which 20–25 per cent of global oil supply normally flows.

— The Strait of Hormuz lies between Oman and Iran. It links the Persian Gulf north of it with the Gulf of Oman to the south and the Arabian Sea beyond. It is 21 miles (33 km) wide at its narrowest point, with the shipping lane just two miles (three km) wide in either direction.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Knowledge Nugget | US-Israel war on Iran: 10 must-know tidbits for UPSC Exam

📍How India’s economy deals with West Asia war

📍Will Indian refiners buy Iranian crude oil after US sanctions waiver?

UPSC Prelims Previous year  and Practice Questions Covering similar theme:

(1) In the context of global oil prices, “Brent crude oil” is frequently referred to in the news. What does this term imply? (UPSC CSE 2011)

1. It is a major classification of crude oil.

2. It is sourced from the north sea.

3. It does not contain sulphur.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 2 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1,2, and 3

(2) Which of the statements about the Strait of Hormuz is not correct?

(a) It is a critical region for international oil and gas supplies.

(b) It is a narrow waterway between Bahrain and Qatar.

(c) It connects the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea.

(d) Disruption of shipping in this strait can significantly affect global energy prices.

Neutrality cannot be assured if EC dependent on contestants: SC judge

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current event of national importance, Polity and Governance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and institutions, Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.

What’s the ongoing story: Underlining that the independence of the Election Commission of India is central to the conduct of elections and the political process, Supreme Court judge Justice B V Nagarathna said Saturday “if those who conduct elections are dependent on those who contest them, the neutrality of the process cannot be assured”.

Key Points to Ponder:

— Read about the Election Commission of India in detail. 

— What are the ‘checks and balances’ in the Constitution of India?

— What is the significance of the independence of the Election Commission?

— How does the constitution provide for the independence of constitutional bodies like the Election Commission?

— What are the constitutional provisions related to the Comptroller and Auditor General of India and the Finance Commission of India?

— What is the separation of powers and its significance?

Key Takeaways:

— Delivering the first Dr Rajendra Prasad Memorial Lecture at Chanakya National Law University in Patna, Justice Nagarathna said institutions such as the Election Commission, the Comptroller and Auditor General and the Finance Commission are designed to operate outside the electoral influence.

— She described these bodies as “insulated, specialised, and tasked with overseeing domains where the ordinary political process may be insufficient to ensure neutrality”. Their independence, she said, is not incidental but structural.

— Her remarks came amid the row over the Opposition’s criticism of Chief Election Commissioner Gyanesh Kumar and the conduct of the Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls, especially in poll-bound West Bengal. Last month, Opposition MPs submitted notices in both Houses of Parliament for an impeachment motion against the CEC.

— The lecture, titled ‘Constitutionalism beyond Rights: Why Structure Matters’, focused on institutional design as the basis of constitutional governance. She said the risk to a constitutional system lies not only in the violation of rights but also in the weakening of institutions that enforce limits on power.

— The Constitution, Justice Nagarathna said, is based on the division of power across institutions so that authority is not concentrated in one organ. “Without such division, there can be no restraint. Without restraint, no Constitution can protect liberty as well as the preambular rights,” she said.

— She said the risk to a constitutional system lies in the weakening of its institutional framework, noting that the erosion of structural checks often precedes any visible violation of rights. When institutions cease to act as restraints on one another, formal processes may continue, “elections may continue, courts may function, laws may be enacted by the Parliament; and yet, power is effectively not restrained because the structural discipline no longer exists.”

— She pointed to indicators of such weakening, including legislatures that do not engage in meaningful deliberation, executives that act beyond legal limits, and courts that move away from constitutional discipline.

— On Centre-state relations, she said the Constitution envisages a system of co-equal governments and called for reliance on “dialogue, negotiation, and mediation” rather than adversarial litigation.

— She referred to Dr Rajendra Prasad’s articulation of checks and balances, noting that each organ of the State must function within its sphere without interfering with others. 

Do You Know:

— The doctrine of separation of powers stands for a form of government in which the mechanism of governance is divided into three branches, namely Legislature, Executive and the Judiciary in the majority of democratic nations. 

— The Part XV of the Constitution of India deals with Elections. It has the following articles (Articles 324–329) to empower the Election Commission and provide insight into the potential roles and functions of the commission.

— Article 324: The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of the electoral rolls for, and the conduct of, all elections to Parliament and the Legislature of every state and of elections to the offices of President and Vice-President.

— Article 325: No individual to be excluded from electoral rolls on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or any of them.

— Article 326: Adult suffrage shall be the basis for elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States.

— Article 327: Parliament may, according to the provisions of this Constitution, from time to time enact laws with respect to all matters relating to elections to Parliament and Legislative Assemblies of States.

— Article 328: A state’s Legislature may from time to time by law make provision with respect to all matters relating to, or in connection with, the elections to the House or either House of the Legislature.

— Article 329: The article prohibits the courts from becoming involved in electoral matters.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Election Commission of India is one of the greatest gifts of the Constitution

📍What is the Doctrine of Separation of Powers?

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:

(3) Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2017)

1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.

2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.

3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognised political parties.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 3 only

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. (UPSC CSE 2022)

 

NATION

Sabarimala: 9-judge bench to hear pleas from April 7

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance, Indian Polity & Governance – Constitution, Rights Issues, etc.

Main Examination: General Studies II: Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.

What’s the ongoing story: The Supreme Court has notified a nine-judge bench to hear constitutional questions arising from petitions seeking a review of its 2018 judgment lifting age restrictions on the entry of women into the Sabarimala temple in Kerala.

Key Points to Ponder:

— Know about the Sabarimala Temple.

— What was the Supreme Court’s ruling in the Sabarimala temple case?

— What are the constitutional provisions related to religious freedom?

— Know Articles 14, 15, 25 and 51A(e) of the Constitution of India.

— What is the “Essential Religious Practices” doctrine?

— How has the doctrine of essentiality been used in subsequent years?

— How does Essential Religious Practices balance the right to freedom of religion and other fundamental rights?

Key Takeaways:

— Chief Justice of India Surya Kant will preside over the bench, which will include Justices B V Nagarathna, M M Sundresh, Ahsanuddin Amanullah, Aravind Kumar, Augustine George Masih, Prasanna B Varale, R Mahadevan and Joymalya Bagchi. The bench will commence hearing in the matter from April 7.

— On September 28, 2018, a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court, by a 4:1 majority, lifted the age restriction on women visitors and struck down as unconstitutional Rule 3(b) of the Kerala Hindu Places of Public Worship Rules, 1965, which allowed the exclusion of women on the grounds of custom.

— However, on November 14, 2019, the top court, while considering review petitions in the matter, said in a 3:2 ruling that the September 2018 decision may impinge on the affairs of other religions as well and would require a more detailed examination. It therefore decided to keep the review petitions pending till a larger bench took a call.

— Subsequently in January 2020, the SC constituted a nine-judge bench presided by then CJI S A Bobde. On February 10, 2020, the nine-judge bench held that the review petitions are maintainable. It also framed 7 questions for consideration:

1. What is the scope and ambit of the right to freedom of religion under Article 25 of the Constitution of India?

2. What is the interplay between the rights of persons under Article 25 of the Constitution and the rights of religious denominations under Article 26?

3. Whether the rights of a religious denomination under Article 26 of the Constitution are subject to other provisions of Part III of the Constitution, apart from public order, morality and health?

4. What is the scope and extent of the word ‘morality’ under Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution, and whether it is meant to include constitutional morality?

5. What is the scope and extent of judicial review with regard to a religious practice as referred to in Article 25 of the Constitution?

6. What is the meaning of te expression “Sections of Hindus” occurring in Article 25 (2) (b) of the Constitution?

7. Whether a person not belonging to a religious denomination or religious group can question a practice of that religious denomination or religious group by filing a PIL?

Do You Know:

— The Sabarimala Temple is located atop a hill, 3000 metres above the sea level, at Sabarimala in Pathanamthitta district of Kerala. One has to trek upwards from Pamba, the base of the hill, to reach the temple. The temple is administered by the Travancore Devaswom Board, an autonomous authority under the state government which manages numerous other Hindu shrines in the state as well. The Thazhamon Madom is identified as the main family of priests who look after the temple.

— Unlike other Hindu temples in the state, Sabarimala Sree Dharma Sastha temple is not open year-round. It opens for devotees to offer prayers for the first five days of every month in the Malayalam calendar, as well as during the annual ‘mandalam’ and ‘makaravilakku’ festivals between mid-November to mid-January.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Sabarimala review and a question: How far does faith extend — and when should the Constitution step in?

📍When SC reviews 2018 Sabarimala ruling, the issues on the table

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:

How is the Indian concept of secularism different from the western model of secularism? Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2016)

 

ECONOMY

Why greater reliance on coal may spur record solar power curtailments

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance, economic and social development. 

Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors, Infrastructure: Energy. 

What’s the ongoing story: As India heads into a “hotter-than-normal” summer, with forecasts pointing to an above-average number of heatwave days, the government plans to rely more on coal-based power to meet peak summer demand.

Key Points to Ponder:

— How is the West Asia crisis affecting India’s energy security?

— What are the concerns associated with the rising reliance on coal-based power?

— How do heatwaves impact India’s power demand and energy policy?

— What are the challenges associated with the clean energy transition in India’s power sector?

— How does the inflexibility of coal-based power plants lead to renewable energy curtailment?

— What steps should be taken to reduce renewable energy curtailment in India?

— What are the major government schemes to achieve renewable energy targets?

Key Takeaways:

— On Monday, the government informed Parliament that the country’s power system remains “adequately positioned” to meet peak summer demand, despite gas supply constraints triggered by the ongoing conflict in West Asia.

— While gas-based power accounts for a relatively small share of the energy mix, it plays a crucial role during non-solar hours, with nearly 10 GW of capacity typically relied upon during high demand summer months.

— The government said its plans to use “alternative sources” like coal-based generation, renewable energy and energy storage systems compensating for reduced gas-based generation.

— However, this shift may come with trade-offs that extend beyond immediate supply concerns, experts said. A greater reliance on coal could lead to curtailment of renewable energy, particularly solar, due to the operational inflexibility of coal plants.

— Gas-based power plants, meanwhile, are more flexible and can ramp generation up or down to accommodate renewable power while keeping the grid stable during evening peak hours when solar generation is unavailable.

— Coal-based power plants already dominate India’s electricity generation mix, contributing over 70%. Gas contributes around 1-2% in the country’s overall power generation.

— Power generated from gas-based units is typically more expensive than coal and renewable energy. However, due to their flexibility, they are generally used during high-demand periods, such as peak summer months when cooling demand surges, to meet evening peak demand.

— In the past, the government has invoked emergency measures to ensure utilities operate both gas and coal plants at full capacity when soaring temperatures push electricity consumption to record levels.

— However, disruption of gas supply due to the conflict in West Asia has cast a shadow over availability of gas for the country’s gas-based power plants as the government decided to prioritise certain sectors during the shortage.

— To meet this gap and summer demand, the government told the parliament that a series of measures are being rolled out to ensure adequate power supply.

— The government also said it is closely monitoring the progress of thermal and hydro projects slated for commissioning by June 2026. Meanwhile, thermal power plants have been asked to defer their planned maintenance to make available adequate generation capacity.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Coal-fired plants’ inflexibility jeopardises India’s clean energy push: Can an incentive scheme work?

THE WORLD

Floods and landslides leave 77 dead in 10 days in Afghanistan

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of international importance,  General issues on Environmental Ecology, Biodiversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialisation.

Mains Examination: General Studies-I, III: Important Geophysical phenomena, geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features, Disaster and disaster management.

What’s the ongoing story: Widespread flooding, landslides and lightning strikes triggered by heavy rain and storms across Afghanistan have left 77 people dead and 137 injured over the past 10 days, the country’s Disaster Management Authority said Saturday.

Key Points to Ponder:

— What are landslides and their causes?

— How are extreme weather events leading to significant natural disasters for humans?

— Why is Afghanistan vulnerable to extreme weather events?

— What are the key causes of flooding, and what mitigation measures can be adopted?

— What are the impacts of floods and landslides on infrastructure and human lives?

— How prone is India to landslides?

— What is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction?

— What measures should be taken by the government to strengthen resilience in ecologically fragile regions?

— What are the challenges faced by low-income countries in managing climate-induced disasters? 

Key Takeaways:

— More rain has been forecast for the coming days throughout Afghanistan, and the authority warned the public to stay away from river banks and areas prone to flooding. So far this year, dozens of people have died due to extreme weather in Afghanistan, an impoverished country that is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events. Earlier this year, heavy snowfall and flash floods left dozens of people dead across the country.

— Businesses, agricultural land, water wells and irrigation canals have also been damaged, with more than 5,800 families affected overall, the authority said.

— Several highways connecting the country’s capital to the provinces have also been damaged by floods and landslides, forcing travelers to take long, circuitous routes to reach Kabul, Public Works Ministry spokesman Ashraf Haqshinas said Saturday.

— They include the Kabul to Jalalabad highway, which is the main route linking the capital to the Pakistani border and eastern Afghan provinces. A landslide and rockfalls, as well as flooding, shut the highway on Thursday morning, and Haqshinas said crews were working to re-open the road.

— Flooding has also shut the Salang Pass, a high mountain pass in the Hindu Kush mountain range that connects Kabul to the country’s north, including the major cities of Kunduz and Mazar-e-Sharif.

— Snow and heavy rain often trigger flash floods that kill scores, or even hundreds, of people at a time in Afghanistan. In 2024, more than 300 people died in springtime flash floods.

Do You Know:

— A landslide is a physical phenomenon in which a mass portion of rock, debris, or soil falls due to the influence of gravity. Landslides are one of the common geological hazards in hilly areas throughout the world.

— According to the World Health Organisation (WHO)-  Landslides occur when large masses of soil, rocks or debris move down a slope due to a natural phenomenon or human activity. Mudslides or debris flows are also a common type of fast-moving landslide

— According to WHO, areas that are most vulnerable to landslides include:

• Any area where surface runoff is directed or land is heavily saturated;

• Steep terrain, including areas at the bottom of canyons;

• Land that has been modified due to human activity, such as deforestation or construction;

• Land previously burned by wildfires;

• Channels along a stream or river.

— Excessive or continuous rainfall over a period of days, or during particular seasons, can lead to stagnation of water and cause flooding. 

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍UPSC Issue at a Glance | Landslides : 5 Key Questions You Must Know for Prelims and Mains

UPSC Prelims practice Question Covering similar theme:

(4) Consider the following statements:

1. Any area where surface runoff is directed or land is heavily saturated is vulnerable to landslides.

2. The soil topography, rock type, geomorphology, and slope angles in certain areas can make them more vulnerable to landslides than others.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Previous year UPSC Mains Questions Covering similar theme:

Describe the variopus causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (UPSC CSE 2021)

The Himalayas are highly prone to landslides.” Discuss the causes and suggest suitable measures of mitigation. (UPSC CSE 2016)

ALSO IN NEWS
Panama Papers, piercing the veil of secrecy	In July 2015, the Panama Papers investigation was launched to map the offshore footprints of the rich and powerful who went looking for financial secrecy. Ten months on, in April 2016, its findings would shake the world. Secrecy and low- or zero-taxation make offshore tax havens — such as the Cayman Islands, British Virgin Islands, Seychelles and Panama — attractive. It costs a few hundred dollars to set up an offshore entity — available off-the-shelf or can be registered in just 48 hours through a registered agent.
AT-1 bond mis-selling case: HDFC Bank acts against 15 executives for alleged role	HDFC Bank is learnt to have taken disciplinary action against 15 executives for their role in the alleged mis-selling of Credit Suisse Additional Tier-1 bonds. Investors have alleged that the AT-1 bonds which are complex, high-risk financial instruments, the Credit Suisse AT-1 bonds, were probably held by HDFC Bank in its books, and sold off to them when the bank realised in late 2020 that Credit Suisse was not doing well.

 

PRELIMS ANSWER KEY

1. (b)  2. (b)  3. (d)   4. (c)

Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.

🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for March 2026. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at manas.srivastava@indianexpress.com🚨