UPSC Key: Bhojshala Dispute, Taslima Nasreen and Virtual Courts

Bhojshala dispute: SC orders Friday prayers at alternative site

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: History of India

Main Examination: 

• General Studies I: Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

• General Studies II: Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary

What’s the ongoing story: The Supreme Court Tuesday declined an interim stay on a Madhya Pradesh High Court order that would have allowed Muslims to continue Friday prayers at the Bhojshala complex in Dhar. Describing it as a “sensitive matter”, the court directed that Muslims offer Friday prayers at an alternative site near the Bhojshala until a final decision on the dispute.

Key Points to Ponder:

• What Supreme Court said?

• What is the Bhojshala temple-Kamal Maula mosque complex?

• What is the dispute of Bhojshala mosque?

• How did Bhojshala gain traction?

• What are the theories surrounding the idol?

• How did the row flare up?

• What exactly High Court said in this regard?

• Who was Raja Bhoj?

• What you know about Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty?

Key Takeaways:

• On May 15, the Madhya Pradesh High Court held that the complex has a religious character as a temple, following which the Muslim appellants Tuesday sought an interim stay and the restoration of the status quo ante.

• During the hearing, CJI Kant said, “These are very sensitive matters”.
“What is happening inside court no 1 can unnecessarily create a wrong impression, a wrong message. We should be extremely careful in using any expressions….The state’s helplessness in maintaining law and order has been noted. That’s why we just thought whatever system is there, if we can list it after 10-15 days before a bench,” CJI Kant said.

• The medieval structure in Madhya Pradesh’s Dhar has long been the subject of competing claims. While Hindus consider the ASI-protected complex a temple dedicated to the goddess, Muslims regard it as the Kamal Maula mosque.

• Under a 2003 arrangement, Hindus performed puja at the complex on Tuesdays and Muslims offered namaz on Fridays.

Do You Know:

• At the centre of Dhar city, over 250 km away from Bhopal, is the tomb of Kamal al-Din, a Chishti saint and follower of Farid-al Din Ganj-i-Shakar and Nizam al-Din Auliya. His tomb was built adjacent to a spacious hypostyle mosque “built primarily of reused temple parts”. This led to right-wing groups arguing that the complex is a temple dedicated to the Goddess Vagdevi (Saraswati).

• The Hindu Front for Justice (HFJ), argued that the mosque was constructed during the reign of Alauddin Khilji between the 13th and 14th centuries, after “destroying and dismantling ancient structures of previously constructed Hindu temples”.

• According to a 2012 research paper by Michael Willis, published in the Royal Asiatic Society, the Bhojshala or ‘Hall of Bhoja’ is a term used to describe the centre for Sanskrit studies associated with King Bhoja, the most celebrated ruler of the Paramara dynasty.

• The mosque has been referred to in the writings of English author John Malcolm in 1822 and William Kincaid in 1844. While they documented popular legends associated with Raja Bhoj, they never identified the Bhojshala.

• Willis pointed out that Alois Anton Fuhrer, a German Indologist who worked for the ASI, travelled to Central India in 1893 and recorded the mosque complex with the term “Bhoja’s school”. However, he was dismissed from his position in the ASI after an investigation uncovered an enormous degree of bad scholarship.

• In 1902, a small archaeological department office was established in Dhar by the British government and Superintendent of State Education, K K Lele, was made its in-charge. At the time, the British were investing in research to modernise the Indian government, and in his enquiry, Lele found “two serpentine inscriptions giving the
alphabet and grammatical rules of the Sanskrit language.”

• Art historian O C Ganguly, and then Director-General of the ASI, discovered an “inscribed sculpture” in the British Museum and announced that it was “Bhoja’s Saraswati from Dhar”. Over time, many others would back this claim.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍As SC allows Basant Panchami prayers and namaz at Bhojshala, recalling the dispute

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
1) With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE, 2020)
Famous Place Present State
1. Bhilsa Madhya Pradesh
2. Dwarasamudra Maharashtra
3. Girinagar Gujarat
4. Sthanesvara Uttar Pradesh
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 4 only

After nearly 2 decades, author Taslima Nasrin set for Kolkata return

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies I: Role of women and women’s organization

What’s the ongoing story: Almost two decades after she was forced to leave Kolkata following protests against her writing, Bangladesh-born author Taslima Nasreen is set to appear in a public event in the city on August 1.

Key Points to Ponder:

• Who is Taslima Nasreen?

• Why was Taslima Nasreen exiled?

• Exiled Bangladeshi author Taslima Nasreen has been a central point of tension in India-Bangladesh relations-why?

• Know the significance of freedom of speech and expression in a constitutional democracy.

• What is the principle of non-refoulement? Why is it important in international refugee protection?

• How literature and intellectual freedom shapes democratic societies?

Key Takeaways:

• The programme at the city’s Rabindra Sadan cultural centre is being organised by three organisations: Secular Mission, Paschimbonger Jonno (For West Bengal), and Human Rights Beyond Frontiers. The organisers said Chief Minister Suvendu Adhikari and author Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay were also expected to attend the event. This will be Nasreen’s first public appearance in Kolkata since 2007, when protests against her book Dwikhondito (Split: A Life) forced her to leave the city she had made her home since her exile from Bangladesh a decade earlier.

Do You Know:

• Nasreen has been at the centre of controversy over her writings for decades. Her writing primarily focuses on women’s rights, gender equality, patriarchal norms, and domestic and structural violence that women face. Her best-known novel, Lajja (Shame), published in 1993, brought her international recognition. The book chronicled the persecution of a fictitious Hindu family in Bangladesh in the aftermath of the Babri Masjid’s demolition.

• Facing death threats and protests, Nasreen left Bangladesh in 1994 and lived in exile across Europe, including Germany, and North America. During this period, Sweden granted her citizenship. She subsequently found refuge in Kolkata, the city closest to her home culturally.

• In 1998, Nasreen published Meyebela (My Bengali Girlhood), the first volume of her autobiography. However, her troubles began in 2003 after Dwikhondito, the second volume of her autobiography, was published.

• The book contained passages that were deemed offensive to religious sentiments. On November 18, 2003, the Calcutta High Court approved an injunction against the publication of the book after poet Sayed Hasmat Jalal filed a defamation suit against Nasreen. Ten days later, the Buddhadeb Bhattacharya-led Left Front government banned the book, concerned that it might cause communal discord. However, the publisher challenged the ban. In September 2005, the High Court struck it down, ruling that the book did not intend to outrage religious feelings and declaring the government’s move unjustified.

• By then, Nasreen had received a temporary residence permit from the Union government (in 2004) and moved to Kolkata, where she regularly wrote columns for Bengali newspapers. However, the tension over the book continued to simmer. In June 2006, Syed Noor-ur-Rehman Barkati, then the imam of Kolkata’s Tipu Sultan Mosque, announced a reward for anyone who “blackened” Nasreen’s face. Several organisations also demanded that she leave the country. In August 2007, while attending an event in Hyderabad related to the Telugu translation of her novel Shodh (Revenge), Nasreen was roughed up by alleged members of the AIMIM.

• Nasreen moved to New Delhi and in March 2008, she left the country, staying away for at least two years. Nasreen continued to live in India, receiving a residence permit. In 2024, the author publicly thanked Union Home Minister Amit Shah after her request to extend the permit was granted hours after she put up a post on social media expressing concern about her legal status.

• Nasreen has authored more than 40 books in Bengali, including poetry, novels, essays, and a multi-volume autobiography. Her works have been translated into more than 30 languages.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:
📍Taslima Nasrin: Stranger in a Strange Land
Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
2) ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India? (UPSC CSE, 2021)
(a) Article 15
(b) Article 19
(c) Article 21
(d) Article 29

Previous year UPSC Main Question Covering similar theme:
📍What do you understand about the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. (2014)

Amid new US tariff plan, Govt prohibits import of goods made using forced labour

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.

What’s the ongoing story: The Commerce and Industry Ministry on Tuesday prohibited the import of goods manufactured using forced labour weeks after the United States Trade Representative (USTR) proposed 12.5 per cent tariffs on India linked to the issue.

Key Points to Ponder:

• India-US Trade Deal-What you know so far?

• What is reciprocal tariff?

• The International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) tariffs-know its key highlights.

• Why US Supreme Court declared the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) tariffs illegal?

• Section 301 tariffs-what you understand by the same?

• What you know about ‘Non-tariff barriers’ and ‘Section 232 tariffs’?

• Why US targeted India over “structural excess capacity and production”?

• India-US tariff -know the background

• What is the meaning of forced labour?

• What is forced labour under Article 23 of the Constitution?

• ‘The U.S. proposed an additional 12.5% tariff on Indian goods, alleging India failed to strictly enforce import bans on forced labour-linked products’-know the background

• Why India has banned imports of goods made with forced labour?

Key Takeaways:

• The US had launched two Section 301 probes on India in March and subsequently proposed fresh tariffs on June 3 after the outcome of its first investigation found that India failed to “effectively enforce” a forced labour import prohibition, which had purportedly hurt US commerce. The outcome of the second investigation relating to excess capacity is yet to be released.

• The Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT), in an order dated July 13, has inserted a new paragraph in the Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) regarding “forced labour”, stating that the import of goods produced or manufactured, “wholly or in part”, through the use of forced labour is “prohibited”.

• “The Central Government may, from time to time, specify, by notification, the goods whose import shall be prohibited under this paragraph, having regard to the findings of such enquiry or such other material as it may consider appropriate. The procedure for conducting an enquiry by the DGFT into the use of forced labour. The provisions of this notification shall come into effect after the expiry of 30 days from the date of its publication in the Official Gazette,” the notification said.

• A senior Government official told The Indian Express that there are already certain provisions within existing regulations to take care of issues like forced labour, but the July 13 notification is “explicitly stating” it.

Do You Know:

• While India has sought the review of proposed US tariffs of 12.5% citing inconsistencies in its Section 301 investigation, Joint Secretary in the Department of Commerce Brij Mohan Mishra, during a public hearing last week, said the country takes the elimination of forced labour seriously as a constitutional obligation, and as a matter of international law and principle.

• According to international standards, forced labour means all work or service that is exacted from a person under threat of penalty and not offered voluntarily.

• According to GTRI, US authorities consider products such as cotton, textiles, solar-panel polysilicon, seafood, metals, batteries and electronics vulnerable to forced-labour risks, particularly when linked to China’s Xinjiang region. Yet, the US and the EU continue to import many such products from China, underscoring the challenges of enforcing forced-labour rules.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍US Supreme Court strikes down Trump’s tariffs: Could refunds to countries be on the table?

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
3) Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023)
Statements-I: Recently, the United States of America (USA) and the European Union (EU) have launched the ‘Trade and Technology Council’.
Statement-II: The USA and the EU claim that through this they are trying to bring technological progress and physical productivity under their control.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme:
📍‘What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions’. Explain with suitable examples. (2019)

The Big Picture

‘Counsel, you are on mute’ The world of virtual courts

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Indian Polity and Governance

Main Examination: General Studies II: Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary

What’s the ongoing story: FOR DECADES, India’s judicial system was built around physical files, crowded courtrooms and colonial-era systems. That began changing around six years ago as courtrooms adopted virtual hearings, turning what was a pandemic necessity into a key part of India’s justice delivery system.

Key Points to Ponder:

• The Supreme Court of India derives its constitutional status under which article of the Constitution?

• The right to constitutional remedies is guaranteed under which Article?

• Virtual Courts primarily aim what?

• What is the e-courts mission mode project?

• Which institution maintains the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG) for monitoring case pendency?

• What is the significance of virtual courts in improving access to justice?

• Discuss the opportunities and challenges associated with hybrid court proceedings

Key Takeaways:

• Virtual hearings have not only made it easier for litigants to follow their cases but also for lawyers to practise across cities and for citizens to access court proceedings. In the process, they have opened courtrooms to unprecedented scrutiny and transparency, changing how justice is observed and understood.

• In February 2026, Law Minister Arjun Ram Meghwal told Lok Sabha that as of December 31, 2025, High Courts and district courts across the country had conducted 3.93 crore cases via video conferencing. E-filing (cases filed digitally) crossed 1.03 crore and 29 virtual courts processed over 94.5 lakh challans, collecting more than Rs 973 crore — figures the minister cited as evidence to say that digitisation of courts has kept the system moving even as courts struggle with case pendency (five crore and counting).

• Fifteen years before courtrooms moved online, the judiciary had begun an overhaul. In 2005, the Supreme Court’s e-committee proposed a blueprint for digitising court administration.

• When the project was rolled out in 2007, the focus was on basic digital infrastructure. District and taluka courts were equipped with computers, server rooms and local area networks. Courts adopted Case Information Software, a national case management platform that digitised filing, case records and court administration. Millions of pending cases were entered into electronic databases.

• Then, in 2008, came a turning point. India’s first district-level paperless e-court was inaugurated at Karkardooma in Delhi. It was an ambitious shift: touchscreens on the judge’s dais, LCD monitors for viewing digitised records, e-filing to reduce paperwork and facilities for video-linked testimony from jails, forensic laboratories and government hospitals.

Do You Know:

• Since 2022, the Supreme Court has been live-streaming key Constitutional bench hearings on YouTube. Gauhati, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Orissa High Courts are also live on YouTube.

• The virtual infrastructure has worked with relatively little friction inside jails. The e-Mulakat system allows lawyers and family members to schedule video meetings with undertrial prisoners without physically queuing at a gate.

• India’s first district-level paperless e-court, in Delhi’s Karkardooma Court Complex, is a case in point, offering a glimpse into both the promise and fragility of judicial digitisation. Of the two LCD screens installed in 2010 to view digitised records, neither functions. The server crashed in 2016 and has not been restored since. The system, even today, continues to run on a 2G connection.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Ease of justice has brought the legal system closer to people

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
4) With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2021)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither I nor 2

Explained

Why Trump backtracked on 20% Hormuz fee plan

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance

Mains Examination: General Studies II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.

What’s the ongoing story: US President Donald Trump has reversed course on his plan to charge a 20% fee to facilitate the safe passage of commercial vessels through the the Strait of Hormuz.

Key Points to Ponder:

• Map Work– Strait of Hormuz

• Which country has jurisdiction over Strait of Hormuz?

• Is it legal to blockade international waters?

• How has Iran blockaded the Strait of Hormuz?

• What is Exclusive Economic Zone?

• What is the strategic importance of the Strait of Hormuz in global trade and energy security?

• What is the significance of UNCLOS in maintaining freedom of navigation?

• How would disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz affect India’s economy?

• What is the concept of strategic petroleum reserves and their role in energy security?

• Know the importance of maritime chokepoints in international geopolitics.

• Why unilateral attempts to impose transit charges on the Strait of Hormuz would face significant legal, geopolitical and economic challenges?

• The ‘toll-booth system’ in the Strait of Hormuz-why it is said so?

• Is collecting formal tolls for the Strait of Hormuz legal?

Key Takeaways:

• “Based on highly productive conversations with Middle East leadership, I have decided to replace the 20% United States Reimbursement Fee with Trade and Investment Deals that the various Gulf States will be making into the United States…” he posted on Truth Social, his social media platform.

• This came just a day after Trump had announced the 20% fee, sparking scepticism among experts and analysts, given the lack of clarity on how the proposed fee would be implemented — or even calculated.

• It is not clear yet why Trump backtracked, and that too this fast. Going by his own statement, the other Gulf states, who are major energy exporters and depend heavily on the strait, might have played a role. Also, the move’s potential impact on global energy and shipping sectors, and Washington’s traditional stance on navigational freedom could have weighed on the US.

• There were questions about the viability of implementation as well as the legality of any such move under international law and conventions. There was also a big question mark over whether the US would indeed be able to guarantee the safety and security of commercial vessels in the region. So far, its response to Iranian strikes on vessels has been retaliatory, with an evident lack of pre-emptive measures.

• The International Maritime Organization (IMO) said that it opposes fees on ships passing through international waterways. “We have always been consistent on our stance on fees – IMO stands firmly against charging fees for passage through straits used for international navigation. There is no legal basis through which to introduce mandatory tolls simply to transit through a strait,” an IMO spokesperson was quoted as saying.

• The initial announcement was also surprising because the US has traditionally called for freedom of navigation in international waterways and has strongly opposed Iran’s moves to charge tolls from vessels transiting the Strait of Hormuz, which usually accounted for a fifth of global oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG) flows before the war broke out. By calling for a fee, Trump potentially handed Iran an opportunity to argue for its own tolls.

The different routes through the Strait of Hormuz

Do You Know:

• The Strait of Hormuz is the key channel through which 20 per cent of the global energy supply – and majority of the gas supply from Qatar – passes in large carriers. Qatar, UAE, Kuwait have all been hit by the closure of the Strait, and that has led to a global rise in prices of oil and gas, and impacted the supply of cooking gas in India and other countries.

• According to Section 38 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), all ships (commercial and military) enjoy the right of transit passage. This means they can pass through the strait solely for continuous and expeditious transit between one part of the high seas (or EEZ) and another. Also, such vessels must not be a threat to the bordering nations (UNCLOS Article 39).

• Article 44 of the UNCLOS states that coastal states — Iran and Oman, in this case — “shall not hamper” or suspend this passage.

• Charging a fee is legally interpreted as “hampering” passage because it turns a sovereign right into a conditional permit. Attacking a ship for entering the strait is, obviously, illegal as per international law.

• While Iran is a signatory of the UNCLOS, 1982, it has not ratified the treaty, and therefore, refuses to acknowledge the law.

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍Strait of Hormuz transits plummet again: India’s concerns

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
5) With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2022)
1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Lord’s Test was historic, but the format is not a level playing field for women

Syllabus:

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Main Examination: General Studies I: Role of women and Social empowerment

What’s the ongoing story: India’s historic 270-run victory over England in the first-ever women’s Test at Lord’s came as a relief after the team’s exit in the group stage of the T20 World Cup. But the win also highlighted a bigger problem.

Key Points to Ponder:

• How rare is women’s Test cricket?

• Which countries actually play women’s Tests?

• Was there ever a period when more women’s Tests were played?

• Why don’t more Tests happen?

• Is there enough domestic red-ball cricket?

• Is India driving the revival?

• Is there actually public demand?

• What would make women’s Tests sustainable?

• Women in sports in India-what data’s and facts says?

• What is the major issue that affects female athletes participation in sports?

• What are the challenges faced by Indian sportswomen?

• How are females discriminated against in sporting activities?

• Know the importance of gender equality in sports.

• Why women’s Test cricket remains an uneven playing field despite the growing popularity of women’s cricket.

Key Takeaways:

• Unlike the men’s game, which has the World Test Championship, women’s Tests are still few and far between. Most are one-off matches played as part of bilateral tours. There is no regular competition, no points table and no long-term calendar to give women’s Tests context.

• Since the first women’s Test in December 1934, only 154 Tests have been played over 92 years. Men’s cricket has staged more than 2,600 Tests. The format is largely restricted to occasional one-off matches rather than multi-Test series.
The scarcity means entire generations miss out. New Zealand great Suzie Bates retired in 2026 after a 20-year international career without playing a single Test.
“A whole generation from countries like New Zealand and South Africa might go their entire careers without ever playing a Test… there’s a piece of cricket history we are completely locked out of,” Bates said.

• Only 10 nations have played a women’s Test. England have played 104 women’s Tests, Australia 81 and India 43. New Zealand have played 45 Tests but none since 2004. The West Indies have played 12, also without a Test since 2004. South Africa have played 16 Tests, most recently in 2024. Pakistan have played three Tests, while Sri Lanka and Ireland have played one each. The Netherlands remain the only Associate nation to play a women’s Test, doing so in 2007. Bangladesh, Zimbabwe and Afghanistan are yet to make their Women’s Test debuts.

Do You Know:

• Between 1985 and 1999, 42 Tests were played. Teams such as New Zealand, India and the West Indies regularly contested three-match series. The number dropped sharply after 2000 as white-ball cricket became the game’s commercial focus. Only five women’s Tests were played worldwide between 2015 and 2021.

• Women’s cricket built its commercial footprint on white-ball formats, while boards and broadcasters have largely prioritised white-ball cricket because it is easier to schedule and generates greater commercial returns. Each match stands on its own instead of being part of a bigger story. Former ICC chair Greg Barclay noted: “There is no doubt that white ball is the way of the future… I don’t really see women’s Test… evolving at any speed.”
New Zealand’s Sophie Devine, who retired in 2026, acknowledged the commercial reality: “As a purist, I would love to see Test cricket back… But we have to earn that right through performing in white-ball formats first to generate that revenue.”

• India is one of the very few countries with a regular women’s multi-day domestic competition, through the Senior Women’s Multi-Day Trophy that was added to the calendar from the 2023-24 season. England has begun introducing more multi-day cricket within its domestic structure, while South Africa has staged occasional three-day provincial competitions. Australia, however, still has no regular multi-day women’s domestic competition, relying instead on the Women’s National Cricket League (50 overs) and Women’s Big Bash League (T20).

Other Important Articles Covering the same topic:

📍How India women pulled-off a historic Lord’s win

Previous year UPSC Prelims Question Covering similar theme:
6) Consider the following statements in respect of the Laureus World Sports Award which was instituted in the year 2000: (UPSC CSE, 2021)
American golfer Tiger Woods was the first winner of this award.
The award was received mostly by ‘Formula One’ players so far.
Roger Federer received this award maximum number of times compared to others.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

 

PRELIMS ANSWER KEY

1.(a)  2.(c)  3.(c) 4.(c) 5.(d) 6.(c)

  

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