UPSC Prelims 2026 Revision Checklist: Top 25 History and Culture topics for a quick look

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Here’s a checklist of 25 important History & Culture based themes in news for your exams.

#1 Maratha Military Landscapes 

— At the 47th Session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC), India’s official nomination for the 2024-25 cycle, the Maratha Military Landscapes, is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. 

— The Maratha Military Landscapes include 12 forts of Chhatrapati Shivaji, including forts of Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Khanderi, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijay Durg and Sindhudurg in Maharashtra, and Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu. 

— Crucial to Maratha military strategy were hill forts. Unlike the plains of Northern India, suited to conventional battle with large standing armies, the terrain of the Maratha country was different. With the Arabian Sea on one side, the Konkan plains in the centre and the Western Ghats overlooking the plains, in the 17th century much of the region was covered in thick jungles.

— The Maratha icon was born and raised in the hill fort of Shivneri (around 100 km from Pune), given to Shivaji’s grandfather by the Sultan of Ahmadnagar in lieu of his services as a military commander. Shivneri is a typical hill fort found in the Western Ghats – a small but strong fortification, atop a hill overlooking the surrounding terrain.

— Growing up in the hills and valleys around Pune, Shivaji understood the salience of hill forts in controlling the land. Over his storied life, he captured multiple such forts, including Torna (when he was only 16), Rajgadh, Sinhagadh and Purandar.

#2 Konark Sun Temple 

— The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has begun drilling a passage into the Jagamohan (assembly hall) of the 13th-century Konark Sun Temple to remove sand packed inside by the British over a century ago.

— Officials said ASI’s technical team has started drilling a 6×5-foot passage through which the structure—now a UNESCO World Heritage Site—was filled with sand and sealed. Once the passage is drilled through the western wall, sand removal will begin manually.

— The Jagamohan was filled with sand by the British between 1901 and 1903 to “prevent structural collapse and provide stability” to the monument, designed as a chariot for the Sun God. Since then, the hall has remained inaccessible, with visitors viewing it only from outside. The main temple tower, which once housed the deity, has collapsed.

— The last attempt to drill into the structure was made in the mid-1950s by then DG Debala Mitra, who found rainwater seepage was causing moss growth and damaging the khondalite stones.

— Built in the 13th century by King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, the temple is believed to have taken 12 years and around 1,200 sculptors to complete. Today, it draws lakhs of visitors from across the world.

#3 Sarnath

— In 2025, India officially nominated Sarnath for the UNESCO World Heritage List for the 2025-26 cycle.

— “The proposal is for the new plaque to credit [Babu Jagat Singh] for bringing to light Sarnath’s archaeological importance for the first time in 1787-88, and not in 1798,” sources told The Indian Express.  

— Sarnath, roughly 10 km to the northeast of Varanasi, is where the Buddha is said to have delivered his first sermon in c. 528 BCE, and the place at which the Buddhist sangha (community) is said to have formed.

— While ancient Buddhist texts refer to this location as Mrigadava or Rishipatana, and do not provide an exact or even approximate location for it, oral tradition and the actions of Emperor Ashoka (c. 268-232 BCE) have been key to making this association.

— Ashoka famously constructed a lion pillar at Sarnath that today acts as the emblem of the Republic of India. 

— Recent excavations have unearthed evidence of pre-Ashokan activity and habitation at the site, but Ashoka remains singularly associated with Sarnath as its original patron. He oversaw the establishment of several monastic structures at the site, including the Dhamek Stupa, which is said to mark the exact location from where the Buddha delivered his first sermon. It is during his reign that Sarnath became a Buddhist pilgrimage site.

— Sarnath was also patronised by Kushana (1st-4th century CE) and Gupta (3th-6th century CE) rulers, who refurbished Ashokan-era structures and built new ones. A thriving monastery survived at the location till about the 12th century CE.

#4 UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register 

— Manuscripts of the Bhagavad Gita and Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra were added to the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register.

— NATYASHASTRA: Traditionally attributed to the sage Bharata, Natyashastra is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on performing arts. Comprising 36,000 verses, the “Naṭyashastra embodies a comprehensive set of rules that define natya (drama), abhinaya (performance), rasa (aesthetic experience), bhava (emotion), sangita (music),” the UNESCO citation says.

— Estimates for its date of compilation range from 500 BCE to 500 CE (Wallace Dace, ‘The Concept of “Rasa” in Sanskrit Dramatic Theory’, Educational Theatre Journal, 1963). According to the citation in the Register, it was “codified around the 2nd century BCE”.

— Natyashastra is most notable for its exposition of the concept of rasa, literally “juice/essence”, which Bharata says is the goal of any performance art. “Bharatamuni makes a groundbreaking statement in Natyashastra, asserting that ‘no meaning can blossom forth without rasa’, a profound contribution to world literature,” the UNESCO citation says.

— BHAGAVAD GITA: Traditionally attributed to the sage Vyasa, Bhagavad Gita is a Sanskrit scripture comprising 700 verses that are organised in 18 chapters, embedded in the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic poem Mahabharata.

— “Bhagavad Gita is a central text in the continuous, cumulative ancient intellectual Indian tradition, synthesising various thought movements such as, Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, and Charvaka,” the UNESCO citation says.

— The text is generally dated to the first or second century BCE, although there is considerable debate on the matter. According to Winthrop Sargeant, who produced one of the most well-regarded English translations of the Gita, the oral composition was likely written down for the first time in the second or third centuries CE. (Sargeant, Bhagavad Gita, 1979).

— The Gita is essentially a dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna, which takes place just before the beginning of the great war of Mahabharata. On the brink of war against members of his own family, Arjuna is suddenly overwhelmed with the prospect of what he is about to do. He expresses his misgivings to Krishna, his charioteer and guide, also an avatar of Lord Vishnu.

FYI : Recently, India’s nomination for ‘Deepavali, the festival of light’ was inscribed on the UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity for 2025. Apart from Deepavali in India, traditional saree weaving art of Tangail also secured a place in the list.  

#5 Agamas 

— The term Agamas was recently in the news in the context of temple administration and priest appointments in South India, especially in Tamil Nadu. Agama Shastras refer to a collection of scriptures pertaining to matters like construction of temples, idol creation, conduct of worship of the Deity, etc. It prescribes specific qualifications, rituals, and procedures for temple worship, including who can perform priestly duties. 

#6 Cholas in news

—  Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Gangaikonda Cholapuram in Ariyalur district, which was once the Chola capital, to unveil a commemorative coin and inaugurate an exhibition on Rajendra Chola’s northern conquest. The Union Ministry of Culture also hosted a four-day festival in the town commemorating 1,000 years of Rajendra Chola’s maritime expedition to Southeast Asia and the commencement of the construction of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple. 

—  The great Chola king before Rajendra I had been his father, Rajaraja I, who built the Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore (now Thanjavur). ‘Brihadeeswara’ simply means ‘big’, or ‘great’ (brihad in Sanskrit means massive), and the word is also used for the temple Rajendra 1 built, for example in the UNESCO heritage list.

Gangaikondacholapuram (Wikimedia commons)

—  Sastri in his book writes, “The temple of Gangaikondaśõļapuram, the creation of Rajarāja’s son Rājendra, was evidently meant to excel its predecessor in every way… Erected about 1030, only two decades after the temple of Tanjore and in much the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola empire under Räjendra.”

— Thus, where the Tanjore temple has a straight, proud tower rising up, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple has softer lines and curves, proclaiming more assured power and the luxury of beauty and grace.

— The temple today is the site of the annual Aadi Thiruvadhirai festival. Aadi is the name of the month, and Thiruvadhirai is a nakshatra (arrangement of stars and planets) linked to Lord Shiva, also believed to be the king’s birth star. Traditionally, the festival involves therukoothu or road shows enacting Rajendra I’s achievements. The king’s statue is offered new silk robes.

#7. The colonial legacy of Thomas Macaulay

— Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently criticised the legacy of Thomas Babington Macaulay, saying his educational philosophy created Indians who were “British at heart” and weakened India’s cultural self-confidence.

— Thomas Babington Macaulay was a British historian, politician, and member of the Governor-General’s Council in India during the 1830s. He became one of the most influential architects of British colonial policies in education and law.

Thomas Babington Macaulay (Wikipedia)

— Macaulay is most remembered for his famous Minute on Education of 1835. In this document, he strongly supported English education over traditional Indian learning in Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic. He argued that the British should create a class of Indians who would act as intermediaries between the rulers and the masses.

— His ideas helped establish English as the medium of higher education in colonial India. This marked a major shift away from indigenous systems of learning and led to the spread of Western education, literature, and administrative practices.

— The debate over education during this period was between the “Orientalists,” who supported Indian languages and traditional knowledge, and the “Anglicists,” who promoted English and European learning. Macaulay firmly sided with the Anglicists.

— Macaulay also played a major role in shaping India’s legal system. As chairman of the Law Commission, he prepared the draft of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) in 1837, which later came into force in 1862. Many colonial legal structures created during this period continued even after Independence.

— Under his influence, the British codified criminal laws through measures such as the IPC, Civil Procedure Code, and Criminal Procedure Code. These reforms aimed to create a uniform legal framework across British India.

— Macaulay’s legacy remains controversial. Critics argue that his policies promoted cultural inferiority toward Indian traditions and languages, while supporters say his reforms introduced modern education, legal uniformity, and administrative efficiency into colonial governance.

#8. Ancient bonds: A brief history of India-Iran civilisational ties

— India-Iran ties are in focus as New Delhi continues to maintain strategic and energy cooperation with Iran despite global scrutiny and shifting geopolitical alignments.

— The roots of India-Iran relations go back thousands of years to the broader Indo-Iranian cultural zone stretching from Central Asia to north-western India. Ancient trade routes linked the Indus Valley Civilisation with Iran and Mesopotamia, allowing merchants, ideas, languages, and cultural practices to travel across regions.

— Archaeological discoveries at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro show similarities with sites in ancient Iran such as Susa. Trade networks connected India with Iranian and Afghan regions for the exchange of metals, semi-precious stones, and luxury goods as early as the third millennium BCE.

— India and Iran also shared deep linguistic and religious connections. Scholars note similarities between the Rig Veda and the Avesta, the sacred text of ancient Iran. Practices such as fire worship and the soma/haoma ritual reflected a common Indo-Iranian cultural heritage.

— The movement of Indo-Iranian pastoral communities across the Eurasian steppes helped spread languages and traditions. Horse culture and chariot warfare, important in both Vedic and ancient Iranian societies, emerged from these early migrations and interactions.

— Ancient Persian empires regarded the Indus region as part of their wider sphere of influence. Persian inscriptions mention Indian provinces and tribute, highlighting political and commercial links between the two regions.

— During the Sassanian period (3rd to 7th century CE), cultural and diplomatic exchanges intensified. Persian translations of Indian texts entered Iranian intellectual life, while merchants and religious travellers maintained links across the Arabian Sea.

— After the rise of Islam in Persia, several groups, especially Parsis, migrated to India. They settled mainly in Gujarat and preserved Zoroastrian traditions while becoming an important part of Indian society. The migration story is remembered in the traditional text Kisseh-i-Sanjan.

— Persian language and culture deeply influenced medieval India, especially during the Mughal period. Persian became the language of administration, literature, and diplomacy across much of the subcontinent, shaping court culture and intellectual traditions.

— The Safavid rulers of Iran and the Mughal rulers of India maintained strong cultural ties. Shi’a traditions from Iran influenced regions such as Awadh and the Deccan, while Indian scholars and scribes contributed to the growth of Persian literature.

— In the modern era, India and Iran continued to maintain diplomatic goodwill after Independence. Strategic cooperation expanded around energy security, trade routes like Chabahar Port, and connectivity to Central Asia, reflecting a relationship rooted in centuries of shared history and civilisation.

#9. Syama Prasad Mookerjee

Jawaharlal Nehru with Syama Prasad Mookerjee and Jairamdas Doulatram in the rear are Govind Ballabh Pant and Jagjivan Ram (Wikimedia Commons)

— Prime Minister Narendra Modi invoked Syama Prasad Mookerjee after the BJP’s historic victory in West Bengal, highlighting his legacy as the founder of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, the ideological precursor to the BJP. Syama Prasad Mookerjee was born in 1901 in Calcutta and became the youngest Vice-Chancellor of University of Calcutta at age 33, marking him as a distinguished academic before entering politics.

— He was elected to the Bengal Legislative Council and later served as Finance Minister in Fazlul Haque’s coalition government (1941–42), formed in opposition to the Muslim League. From 1943 to 1946, Mookerjee was president of the Hindu Mahasabha and opposed H. S. Suhrawardy’s “United Bengal” plan, advocating for the partition of Bengal so that Hindu-majority West Bengal remained with India.

— After Gandhi’s assassination, he urged the Hindu Mahasabha to distance itself from extremism, and in 1948, he resigned when the organisation rejected his proposal to modernise and broaden membership.

— Serving as Industry and Supply Minister in Nehru’s Cabinet, Mookerjee resigned in 1950 over the Nehru–Liaquat Pact, demanding stronger protections for Hindus in East Pakistan.

— In 1951, with support from RSS volunteers, he founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, which later became the BJP.

— Mookerjee became a prominent critic of Jammu and Kashmir’s special status under Article 370, popularising the slogan: “Ek desh mein do vidhan, do pradhan aur do nishan nahin chalenge.” He supported the Praja Parishad agitation demanding full integration of Jammu and Kashmir with India, opposing its separate flag and permit system. In May 1953, Mookerjee entered Jammu and Kashmir without a permit to symbolically challenge its special status, leading to his arrest near the Ravi bridge.

— He died in detention on June 23, 1953, from a heart attack. His death became a symbol of martyrdom for the Jana Sangh and shaped the BJP’s politics on Kashmir integration.

#10. INSV Kaundinya & India–Oman Maritime History

— The stitched sailing vessel INSV Kaundinya completed its maiden voyage from Porbandar to Muscat in January 2026, reviving India’s ancient maritime traditions. India possessed an advanced shipbuilding tradition in ancient times. INSV Kaundinya was recreated using the traditional stitched-plank technique, where wooden planks were sewn together without nails or metal fastenings. Such ships were flexible and suitable for long-distance oceanic trade in the Indian Ocean.

— The ship is named after Kaundinya, who is believed to have founded an early kingdom in ancient Cambodia. The name highlights India’s ancient maritime and cultural links with Southeast Asia.

— India and Oman share maritime ties dating back over 5,000 years. Oman, historically known as Magan, was an important centre for shipbuilding and trade in copper, frankincense, timber, and pearls in the ancient Indian Ocean trade network. Trade links between the Indus Valley Civilization and Oman were significant. India exported cotton and luxury goods, while Oman supplied copper, which was important for metallurgy in ancient India. Oman’s strategic location helped connect India with the Roman world during the early centuries CE. Arab-Omani sailors acted as intermediaries in Indo-Roman maritime trade.

— Ancient Indian ports such as Muziris, Arikamedu, Sopara, and Nelcynda had strong commercial ties with Omani and Arab merchants. These exchanges also led to cultural and people-to-people connections. Arab historian Al-Masudi recorded the presence of thousands of Arab Muslims on India’s western coast during the 10th century. Gujarati Jain and Bohra merchant communities also settled in Oman.

— The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century changed the character of the Indian Ocean. They attempted to control maritime trade by capturing key ports such as Goa, Muscat, and Hormuz. Under the Ya‘aruba dynasty, Oman emerged as a major naval power and expelled the Portuguese from Muscat in 1650. Indian shipbuilders and teak wood from Surat played an important role in strengthening Omani naval power.

#11. Bhojshala

— Citing historical literature and architectural references, a bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court said recently that the religious character of the disputed Bhojshala-Kamal Maula Mosque complex was that of Bhojshala, or a temple of Goddess Vagdevi Saraswati. 

— At the centre of Dhar city, over 250 km away from Bhopal, is the tomb of Kamal al-Din, a Chishti saint and follower of Farid-al Din Ganj-i-Shakar and Nizam al-Din Auliya.

— His tomb was built adjacent to a spacious hypostyle mosque built primarily of reused temple parts. This led to right-wing groups arguing that the complex is a temple dedicated to the Goddess Vagdevi (Saraswati). 

— It is argued that the mosque was constructed during the reign of Alauddin Khilji between the 13th and 14th centuries, after “destroying and dismantling ancient structures of previously constructed Hindu temples”.

— According to a 2012 research paper by Michael Willis, published in the Royal Asiatic Society, the Bhojshala or ‘Hall of Bhoja’ is a term used to describe the centre for Sanskrit studies associated with King Bhoja, the most celebrated ruler of the Paramara dynasty.

— According to the Dhar district website, Raja Bhoj of Parmara dynasty founded a college at Dhar, which subsequently came to be known as Bhojshala.

#12. 100 Years of CPI

— The Communist Party of India completed 100 years in 2025. The party traces its origin to the Kanpur Conference held on December 26, 1925.

— The roots of communism in India were influenced by global events such as the French Revolution and especially the Russian Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin. The ideas of Karl Marx inspired anti-imperialist and socialist movements across colonial countries, including India.

— Three major streams contributed to the rise of communism in India. One was the work of overseas revolutionaries led by M. N. Roy. Another was the emergence of left-wing groups inside India under leaders such as S. A. Dange and Muzaffar Ahmad. The third was the rise of workers’ and peasants’ organisations, including the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) formed in 1920.

—  Communist Party was first formed at Tashkent in 1920 with support from the Comintern. However, the Kanpur Conference of 1925 is regarded as the formal beginning of the CPI in India. Later, CPI(M) recognised Tashkent as the starting point, while CPI treated Kanpur as its foundation moment.

— The British government viewed communist activities as a threat. In the Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case, leaders like S. A. Dange and Muzaffar Ahmad were imprisoned. Later, the Meerut Conspiracy Case targeted trade unionists and communist leaders for alleged revolutionary activities.

— Communists actively participated in India’s anti-colonial struggle through workers’ and peasants’ movements. During the 1920s and 1930s, they formed Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties and also collaborated with the Congress Socialist Party under a United Front strategy.

— The Communist movement also led important agrarian struggles such as the Tebhaga Movement in Bengal and the Telangana Rebellion against feudal landlords and princely rule.

— During the Second World War, the CPI changed its position after Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941. As a result, during the Quit India Movement, communists prioritised the anti-fascist war effort over direct confrontation with the British.

— After Independence, the Communist movement split between revolutionary and parliamentary approaches. Communist parties later formed elected governments in states like Kerala, West Bengal, and Tripura.

— In 1964, ideological differences over relations with Congress, constitutional politics, and the Sino-Soviet split led to the division between the Communist Party of India and the Communist Party of India (Marxist).

#13. Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar

— A commemorative postage stamp in honour of the king Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II (Suvaran Maran). According to historical records, Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar (705 AD-745 AD), also known as Suvaran Maran, was a ruler of the Mutharaiyar lineage, feudatories of the Pallavas. 

— As the Pallavas’ rule weakened, many such chiefs earned more power and prominence and were treated as rulers in their own right. Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar is believed to have fought bravely in several battles alongside the Pallava king Nandivarman, and is remembered as a great administrator.

— The Mutharaiyars held sway over areas including Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, Perambalur, Tiruchirappalli, and others near the Cauvery river. The Pallava reign saw a religious revivalism of Hinduism amid the dominance of Jainism and Buddhism. As their feudatories, the Mutharaiyars were great temple builders.

— Suvaran Maran was also known as Shatrubhayankar. He seems to have patronised Shaivya and other scholars, as a Jain monk Vimalachandra is mentioned as visiting his court to debate them.

#14. Battles of Imphal & Kohima

— Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently referred to Manipur as the “door to India’s freedom”, recalling the role of the Indian National Army (INA) and the Battle of Imphal during World War II.

— The Battles of Imphal and Kohima (1944) were among the few major World War II battles fought on Indian territory. They took place in present-day Manipur and Nagaland during the Japanese invasion of Northeast India.

— Imphal was a key Allied military base between India and Burma (Myanmar). It was crucial for supplying Allied forces and Chinese troops resisting Japan. Control over Imphal would have allowed Japan to threaten mainland India.

— In March 1944, Japan’s 15th Army launched an invasion of India through Burma. The offensive targeted: Kohima to cut the Dimapur–Imphal supply road and Imphal to isolate Allied forces and establish a foothold in India.

— The Indian National Army (INA) under Subhas Chandra Bose supported the Japanese campaign. Bose hoped the invasion would trigger a collapse of British rule in India. Though militarily limited, the INA had strong symbolic importance in the freedom struggle.

— Battle of Kohima: It was fought between April and June 1944. Small British-Indian forces defended Kohima Ridge against a much larger Japanese force. The battle is remembered for fierce close combat, including fighting around the famous “tennis court”.

— Battle of Imphal: Japanese forces surrounded Imphal Valley and launched repeated attacks. The Allied forces under General William Slim held defensive positions and resisted the siege successfully.

— The Allied victory at Imphal and Kohima marked one of Japan’s greatest defeats in World War II. Japanese and INA forces suffered from starvation, disease, and heavy casualties during retreat. After the defeat, Allied forces launched the reconquest of Burma in 1945.

— The battles demonstrated the major contribution of the Indian Army in World War II. Many Indians fought on both sides: the British Indian Army and the INA alongside Japan. Local communities such as Nagas, Kukis, and Meiteis also participated.

#15. Swadeshi in India

— Swadeshi has returned to public discourse amid the Modi government’s emphasis on Aatmanirbhar Bharat, Make in India, “Vocal for Local”, rising tensions with China, and high US tariffs under Donald Trump.

— Early Origins of Swadeshi: Early ideas of swadeshi appeared in the early 19th century as a response to British goods and missionary influence. Reformers like Gopal Hari Deshmukh and Rajnarayan Basu advocated use of indigenous products to protect Indian industries and artisans.

— Economic Nationalism under British Rule: Dadabhai Naoroji gave the Drain of Wealth Theory in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901). R.C. Dutt argued British policies caused deindustrialisation and decline of Indian handicrafts. These ideas strengthened economic nationalism and support for swadeshi.

— Swadeshi Movement (1905): Triggered by Lord Curzon’s Partition of Bengal (1905). Officially launched at the Calcutta Town Hall meeting on August 7, 1905. It included boycott of British goods such as Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt. Leaders associated with it were: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal (“Lal-Bal-Pal”).

— Gandhi and Swadeshi : Mahatma Gandhi transformed swadeshi into a mass movement during the freedom struggle. He promoted khadi, charkha, village industries, and self-reliance. Swadeshi became linked with Non-Cooperation, boycott movements, and economic self-sufficiency.

— Charkha as Symbol of Nationalism: Gandhi viewed the spinning wheel as a symbol of economic independence and rural employment. Khadi became a political symbol of resistance against British industrial goods.

— Swadeshi and Indian Industry: Swadeshi encouraged growth of indigenous enterprises such as Bengal Chemicals founded by P.C. Ray. It was led to establishment of Indian-owned textile mills, banks, insurance companies, and small industries.

— Gandhi vs Nehru on Industrialisation: Gandhi favoured village-based cottage industries and criticised large-scale industrialism. Many nationalist leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru, supported modern industrialisation and planned economic development.

#16. Nagari Pracharini Sabha and the Rise of Hindi

— Debate over Hindi “imposition” resurfaced after the Maharashtra government last year, withdrew its decision to make Hindi the default third language in primary schools. The issue also renewed attention on the history of Hindi promotion and the role of the Nagari Pracharini Sabha.

— During Mughal rule, Persian was the main official language, but under British rule Indian languages gradually began replacing Persian in administration and courts after 1832.

— In the late 19th century, the Devanagari script increasingly replaced the Persian script in north India; British administrator Antony MacDonnell played a significant role in this transition.

— The Nagari Pracharini Sabha was founded in Banaras in 1893 by Shyam Sunder Das, Ramnarayan Mishra, and Shivkumar Singh to promote Hindi and Devanagari in courts, administration, and education.

— The Sabha played a major role in standardising Hindi by compiling the 11-volume Shabd Sagar dictionary (1929) and publishing important literary works, including Ramchandra Shukla’s History of Hindi Literature.

#17. Serengsia Battle: A key chapter in tribal resistance history 

— Chief Minister of Jharkhand, Hemant Soren attended a state event commemorating the 1837 Battle of Serengsia, an important Adivasi resistance against the East India Company in present-day Jharkhand.

— Ho Adivasis and British expansion: The Ho Adivasis of the Kolhan region (present-day East and West Singhbhum) resisted British attempts to control trade routes and impose taxes, outside settlement, and languages like Hindi and Oriya after the 1821 treaty.

— Connection with Kol Uprising (1831): British exploitation, interference in tribal autonomy, and oppression by zamindars contributed to the Kol Uprising, one of the major tribal rebellions against colonial rule in eastern India.

— Battle strategy and leadership:  In 1837, Ho fighters led by Poto Ho and other tribal leaders used guerrilla tactics in the narrow Serengsia valley — including obstacles, arrows, burning ash and chilli mixtures, and terrain advantage — to defeat a better-armed British force.

— Aftermath and significance :Though the Hos initially won, the British later crushed the resistance, executed leaders like Poto Ho in 1838, and imprisoned many fighters. The battle remains an important symbol of Adivasi resistance and self-governance in Jharkhand history.

#18. 150 years of Vande Mataram: National Song’s historical context 

— The Union government’s January 28 directive on singing all six stanzas of the National Song, Vande Mataram, at official functions has sparked objections from Muslim organisations in India. 

— Vande Mataram (meaning mother, I bow to thee) was composed in Sanskritised Bengali by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1875. Six years later, it was included in his novel Anandamath, which tells the story of the late-18th century Sanyasi Rebellion — a series of armed uprisings against the rule of Mir Jafar and his East India Company overlords.

— Vande Mataram emerged as a rallying cry during the Swadeshi movement (1905–08), becoming closely associated with the freedom struggle.

— An October 1937 letter from Jawaharlal Nehru to Subhas Chandra Bose expressed apprehension that the song could provoke Muslims owing to its Anandamath background. But he added that the outcry was “manufactured” by “communalists”.

— A Congress Working Committee resolution from October 1937 recommended that whenever Vande Mataram is sung at national gatherings, only the first two stanzas should be sung. It noted that there was nothing in the first two stanzas to which any one can take exception, and that the latter stanzas were not well known.

— Indeed, the first two stanzas describe the beauty of the motherland — its fertility, its waters, its greenery. And in 1950, these stanzas were adopted as India’s National Song. While the Constituent Assembly accorded the song equal honour and respect alongside the National Anthem, there had been no compulsory etiquette, posture, or legal requirement associated with singing or reciting it.

#19. Rajagopalachari: Freedom fighter, reformer and statesman

President Droupadi Murmu recently unveiled a statue of C. Rajagopalachari at Rashtrapati Bhavan, replacing the bust of British architect Edwin Lutyens.

Rajagopalachari as Governor-General of India proclaims the Republic of India on January 26, 1950. (Wikimedia Commons)

Here are a few historical tidbits about Rajaji

— Role in Freedom Struggle: Rajaji was a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, joined Annie Besant’s Home Rule League in 1916, led the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha (1930), and supported anti-untouchability movements including the Vaikom Satyagraha.

— Rajaji Formula (1944): He proposed the “CR Formula” to resolve the Congress–Muslim League deadlock by accepting a plebiscite on Pakistan in Muslim-majority areas after independence.

— Temple Entry & Social Reform: As Premier of Madras Presidency, Rajaji backed temple entry reforms for Dalits and supported legislation enabling access to temples like the Meenakshi Temple.

— Hindi Policy & Linguistic Debate: Though he introduced compulsory Hindi in schools in 1938, he later strongly opposed the imposition of Hindi as the sole official language during the 1965 anti-Hindi agitations.

— Last Governor-General of India: Rajaji became the only Indian and the last Governor-General of India (1948–1950) before India became a republic. He later served as Chief Minister of Madras State (1952–54).

— Swatantra Party & Economic Views: He founded the Swatantra Party in 1959, opposing one-party dominance of Congress, excessive centralisation, and Nehru’s “coercive Soviet-style planning”, while advocating free enterprise and limited state control.

— Legacy & Recognition: Gandhi called Rajaji his “conscience keeper”. He received the Bharat Ratna in 1954 and was also known for his popular retellings of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

#20. 500 years of First Battle of Panipat

— First Battle of Panipat marked 500 years in 2026. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi with around 12,000 troops despite being heavily outnumbered.

— Historians argue that Babur’s victory was due more to tactical innovation than superior technology.Firearms and cannons already existed in India before Babur; he did not introduce gunpowder weapons to the subcontinent.

— Babur’s key innovation was using matchlocks and artillery effectively in open-field warfare through the Tulughma formation, inspired by Ottoman military tactics. In the Tulughma formation, carts were tied together as defensive barricades, while artillery, matchlock men, cavalry wings, and flanking “turning parties” were strategically deployed. Ibrahim Lodi’s army became crowded and immobile during the battle, making it vulnerable to Babur’s artillery attacks.

— However, Babur lacked widespread local support; many Indian Muslim elites and Sufi groups were wary of him. The conflict was primarily a political struggle within the Delhi Sultanate, not a religious war. Babur invaded after being invited by rebel Lodi nobles such as Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam Khan.

— Battle of Khanwa is another important battle to remember that further demonstrated that alliances were political rather than religious. Muslim chiefs like Hasan Khan Mewati fought alongside Rana Sanga against Babur.

#21. Women in Constituent Assembly

— In Constitution Assembly debates, two out of the 15 women who were part of the Assembly argued unrelentingly against the implementation of reservation for women. They were Renuka Ray and Hansa Mehta. Surprisingly, the only one in favour was a man: R K Chaudhari. 

Here is a list of some of the women members of Constituent Assembly: 

— Annie Mascarene

Born in 1902, Annie Mascarene’s work as a lawyer and politician in Travancore influenced her arguments in the Constituent Assembly Debates greatly. She fought to integrate the princely state of Travancore into the newly independent India and became the first woman to hold a ministerial and legislative assembly position in Travancore.

Mascarene in the Constituent Assembly Debates firmly believed in the centralisation of power for a smooth functioning of a democracy. She also warned against complete centralisation which would negatively affect the nature of democratic institutions. She said that the task of the Assembly was to lay down the rudimentary principles of democracy for generations to come and not just for the near future.

— Hansa Jivraj Mehta

As a staunch freedom fighter, women’s rights activist and member of the Constituent Assembly, Hansa Jivraj Mehta essayed several roles. On August 15, 1947 as the country celebrated its Independence and President Rajendra Prasad took the pledge of freedom, Mehta presented the country’s first national flag on behalf of the women of India.

Mehta remained committed to women’s issues throughout her life and, in the Constituent Assembly, made strong arguments against reservations for women. “What we have asked for is social justice, economic justice and political justice, not reserved seats for quotas and separate electorates,” she said. Mehta also served on the board of UNESCO and became the first Vice Chancellor of MS University in Baroda.

— Dakshayani Velayudhan

Born into the Pulaya community of Kerala, Dakshayani Velayudhan faced acute discrimination from the upper caste communities in Cochin and Travancore. Movements against caste discrimination were becoming prominent.

Velayudhan affirmed that the Constituent Assembly does not just “provide a new framework for the country but also grants the people a new framework of life”. She was a Gandhian and opposed untouchability. She supported Article 17 of the Constitution which abolishes untouchability. Velayudhan did not pursue electoral politics but was actively involved in social work in Delhi.

— Amrit Kaur

A princess by birth but a fierce activist by passion, Amrit Kaur played an important role both during the freedom struggle and in shaping independent India. Kaur joined Gandhi in the Civil Disobedience movement in 1930 and was passionate about the political participation of women.

Like many of her contemporaries, Kaur advocated for universal adult franchise and did not believe in reservations for women. Kaur believed that true equality would only be gained when women made it to the legislature through ordinary elections rather than through reservations.

She advocated for the Uniform Civil Code along with Hansa Mehta and wanted to replace “free practice of religion” with “freedom of religious worship” in the draft Constitution. A secular at heart, Kaur carried with her a spinning wheel, the Bhagwad Gita and the Bible when she was jailed after the Quit India Movement.

Kaur also served as the first women Health Minister and founded renowned institutions like the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS).

— Ammu Swaminathan

Fearless and politically charged, Ammu Swaminathan was a social worker, politician and anti-caste activist. Swaminathan actively fought to erase caste-based discrimination in India.

Swaminathan started becoming politically involved in 1917 when she formed the Women’s India Association along with Annie Besant to address the social and economic problems of women workers. In the Constituent Assembly, Swaminathan supported the adult franchise and the removal of untouchability.

Having been at the receiving end of the practice of child marriage herself, she advocated for the Child Marriage Restraint Act and Age of Consent Act and the various Hindu Code Bills that pushed for reform in Hindu religious laws.

— Durgabai Deshmukh

Remembered as the ‘Mother of Social Work’, Durgabai Deshmukh was one of the drivers of rigorous nation-building and social reform. Since her childhood, she noticed cruel customs and poor treatment of women. When she was jailed during the Salt Satyagraha, Deshmukh observed that several women were imprisoned for crimes they did not even commit.

After this, Deshmukh decided to become a lawyer and pioneered the Andhra Mahila Sabha in 1937, which became an institution of education and social welfare. In the Constituent Assembly, she weighed in on judicial matters and advocated lowering the age from 35 to 30 to hold a seat in the Council of Ministers.

After Independence, she also served in the Planning Commission as a leader of social services and became the chairperson of the Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB).

— Begum Aizaz Rasul

“Reservation is a self-destructive weapon which separates the minorities from the majority for all time,” said Begum Aizaz Rasul in the Constituent Assembly in 1948.

She was the only Muslim woman member in the Constituent Assembly and advocated for minority rights in a secular state. However, she opposed reservations and separate electorates on communal lines.

Rasul was also the President of the Indian Women’s Hockey Federation and established the All India Women’s Hockey Association for 20 years.

— Vijaya Laxmi Pandit

Often sidelined as Jawaharlal Nehru’s sister, Vijaya Laxmi Pandit was a diplomat and revolutionary. She was the first woman cabinet minister in the British era. She was also one of the first leaders to call for an Indian constituent assembly to frame a Constitution.

In the Assembly, Pandit emphasised the responsibilities of a free India towards its citizens and other countries. After independence, Pandit became the face of India on a global stage. She was the only woman delegate at the United Nations Organisation Conference. She was also the first woman President of the UN General Assembly in 1953.

#22. Samprati: The Jain Mauryan

— The rise of the Mauryan Empire under rulers like Ashoka is closely associated with the spread of Buddhism, but Jainism also remained influential during this period. On Mahavir Jayanti, PM Narendra Modi inaugurated a museum dedicated to Jain history and Samrat Samprati, Ashoka’s grandson, who is remembered in Jain traditions for promoting Jainism across India.

— Jain narratives also associate Chandragupta Maurya with the faith, especially in the Digambara tradition, which says he migrated south during a famine and died in meditation at Shravana Belgola.

— Samprati, believed to have ruled around 230–220 BCE, is described in Jain texts as a devoted patron who embraced Jainism under the monk Suhastin in Ujjain. He is credited with building and renovating temples, spreading Jain teachings, and supporting monks across regions such as Gujarat, Malwa, Karnataka, Andhra, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra. Some traditions even claim Jainism spread to regions beyond India, including Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Central Asia under his patronage.

#23. 50 years of Sikkim’s integration with India

— Sikkim only became an official part of India after almost three decades of independence for the country. Annually commemorated on May 16, Sikkim Day marks the former kingdom’s integration with India in 1975. 

— The kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642, when, according to one account, three Tibetan lamas consecrated Phuntsong Namgyal as the first ruler or Chogyal of Sikkim. The monarchy of the Namgyal dynasty was maintained for the next 333 years, until 1975. 

— Sandwiched between India and China, and often party to conflicts over land with Bhutan and Nepal, the British colonisation of India first led to a semi-formal relationship between the two states. The British saw Sikkim as a buffer state against China and Nepal.

— A formal protectorate was established over Sikkim through the Treaty of Tumlong in 1861, meaning the British had control over it, but it was not officially under their rule, and the Chogyals could continue holding onto power.

— Other official treaties followed: The treaty of Titaliya in 1817 gave the British authorities several commercial and political advantages in Sikkim. The Calcutta Convention of 1890 demarcated the border between Sikkim and Tibet, and was signed by Viceroy Lord Lansdowne and Qing China’s Imperial Associate Resident in Tibet. The Lhasa Convention of 1904 affirmed the Calcutta Convention.

— After India’s independence, Sikkim did not immediately merge with India because of its unique protectorate status. While leaders like Sardar Patel favoured integration, Jawaharlal Nehru preferred that Sikkim evolve gradually. The Indo-Sikkim Treaty of 1950 made Sikkim an Indian protectorate, with India controlling defence, foreign affairs, and communications, while Sikkim retained internal autonomy.

— Over time, democratic and pro-merger sentiments grew within Sikkim, especially among political parties representing the majority Nepali population. Political instability, demands for reforms, and tensions with the monarchy intensified during the 1960s and 1970s. India increasingly backed pro-democracy forces led by Kazi Dorji and the Sikkim Congress.

— Following mass protests in 1973 and political reforms, elections in 1974 reduced the Chogyal’s powers. In a 1975 referendum, an overwhelming majority voted in favour of abolishing the monarchy and joining India. Soon after, the Indian Parliament passed the 36th Constitutional Amendment, officially making Sikkim the 22nd state of India on May 16, 1975.

#24. The Somnath temple

— Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi was in Gujarat today to mark 75 years of the inauguration of the restored Somnath temple.  

— Located in Prabhas Patan, Veraval, Somnath is an important Hindu pilgrimage site. According to the temple’s website, it is “the holy place of the First Aadi Jyotirling Shree Somnath Mahadev and the sacred soil where Lord Shri Krishna took his last journey…”

— By most historical accounts, the temple faced several attacks from raiders, with the most damaging by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026 CE. 

— The present temple was reconstructed in Chaulukya style of Hindu temple architecture and completed in May 1951. The reconstruction was completed by Vallabhbhai Patel. The site of Somnath has been a pilgrimage site from ancient times on account of being a Triveni sangam (the confluence of three rivers — Kapila, Hiran and Sarasvati.  

— This history of Somnath has often been used to divide Hindus and Muslims. The British attempted this as far back as 1842, when a British official claimed to have “avenged the insult of Hindus” by bringing back the “sandalwood gates of Somnauth” from Afghanistan. The gates later turned out to be neither of Somnath nor of sandalwood.

— In 1842, the British Army suffered losses in its Afghanistan expedition. A retaliatory strike was carried out, and it is during this time that the “gates of Somnath” carried away by Mahmud of Ghazni surfaced in a big way. The British brought back a pair of wooden gates from Ghazni, claiming they were the original gates of Somnath taken by the invader. British Governor General Lord Ellenborough framed this exercise as the “avenging of an insult”. 

— Upon examination, the gates were found to be made of deal, an inexpensive pinewood, and not of Indian design. The UK’s National Army Museum says the gates “turned out to have been made in Ghazni.”

#25. Dravidian movement 

— Tamil Nadu saw a political twist. More than half of the AIADMK’s 47 MLAs defied the party whip to help Chief Minister C Joseph Vijay’s Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam (TVK)-led coalition sail through the Assembly floor test.

— Splits, however, are nothing new for the Dravidian parties that have dominated Tamil Nadu’s politics for almost 60 years now. What’s crucial is that none of the splits appears to have diluted their “Dravidian ideology”.

— The institutional basis of the Dravidian movement was laid in 1916 with the formation of the Justice Party. It comprised members of the non-Brahmin elite, merchants, landlords and professionals who were looking to politically counter Brahmin dominance in government jobs and the public sphere.

— In 1925, E V Ramasamy Naicker — a former Congressman who would later come to be known as Periyar (the elder) — formed the Self-Respect Movement that stood for anti-caste politics, rationalism, social reforms and women’s rights. Periyar was also known for his uncompromising atheism.

— The Self-Respect Movement also increasingly emphasised Tamil identity, calling the language and culture distinct from Sanskritic North Indian traditions.

— In 1944, the Justice Party and the Self-Respect Association merged to form the Dravidar Kazhagam (DK). The DK was anti-Brahmin, anti-Congress and anti-Aryan, espousing an independent Dravida Nadu.

— C N Annadurai, or Anna (elder brother), emerged as a key figure of the DK, which also attracted youngsters such as M Karunanidhi.

🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for May 2026. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at manas.srivastava@indianexpress.com🚨 

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