Three jewels that shape Buddhist philosophy and way of life 

Among all fragrant roots, spikenard is considered the finest;
Among all fragrant heartwoods, red sandalwood is the most prized;
Among all fragrant flowers, jasmine stands supreme.
In the same way, among all the teachings of the time, the guidance of the blessed Gautama is the most excellent.

This poetic comparison highlights how the Buddha’s Dhamma is seen as the most refined and sublime among the various contemporary teachings. Taking refuge in the Buddha means placing trust in his awakening and recognising him as the one who has shown the path to freedom, compassion, and wisdom.

Doctrine of anattā (non-self)

In Buddhism, Dhamma refers to the teachings of the Buddha, rooted in the ariya sacchani or four noble truths and the atthanga magga or the eightfold path. It outlines ethical conduct, discipline, and wisdom as the foundations of an individual’s progress. A significant component of the Buddha’s teaching in this regard is impermanence (anichcha). 

Impermanence manifests in various aspects of life. In the context of a person’s life and existence, there is no force in this universe that can prevent the inevitable. As Siddhartha learned from his first journey outside the palace, the onset of old age, illness, and death is inevitable. Therefore, the concepts of ‘I’, ‘me’, and the ‘self’ are not constant; they are constantly evolving and are made of multiple experiences. 

This understanding directly connects to Buddhism’s rejection of anything permanent, such as the soul or atman. Buddhism teaches the doctrine of anattā (non-self), which posits that there is no enduring, unchanging self or essence within beings or phenomena. This concept can be explained through a dialogue between King Milinda and monk Nāgasena from Milindapañhā (a later Buddhist text from around the 1st century CE). 

In the dialogue, Milinda asks for clarification on the nature of personal identity. Nāgasena responds with a famous parable: although the king claims that he arrived in a chariot, upon examination, no inherent “chariot” was identified in any single component – the axle, wheels, or chassis (these parts alone cannot constitute a chariot, either).

Here the term “chariot” is merely a convenient label applied to the assemblage of interdependent parts. Similarly, our personal identity (such as our names) does not indicate an enduring self or soul; rather it refers to the combination of several aggregates – like form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.

Dhamma compared to a raft

In Buddhist teachings, the Dhamma is often compared to a raft – a powerful analogy used in the Majjhima Nikaya (1.134–35). The text presents the image of a man who comes upon a wide river in flood. The shore he stands on is dangerous and filled with fear, while the far shore appears safe. However, there is no bridge or boat for him to cross the river. 

Thinking practically, the man gathers grass, sticks, branches, and leaves, and constructs a raft. Using the raft, he manages to cross the river safely. Once on the far shore, he reflects on the raft’s usefulness and considers whether he should carry it on his head or back as he continues his journey. The Buddha suggests that this would be inappropriate. The man should recognise the raft’s value for the specific purpose, and now since the purpose is fulfilled, he should leave it behind. 

Similarly, the Dhamma is a raft that is meant to help one cross over the river of suffering. It is not meant to be clung to once its purpose is fulfilled.  The ultimate goal is liberation where one is free from all sorts of attachments, including the Dhamma. 

Sangha, the third jewel

After the Buddha and the Dhamma, the Sangha is the third jewel from the triratna. The Sangha is the monastic order of Buddhism, which was established during the lifetime of the Buddha. It was the core institution that spread the Buddha’s teachings. 

The Sutta Vibhanga, a section of the canonical text Vinaya Pitaka, mentions the Patimokkha – the rules for monastic life. It consists of 227 rules for bhikkhus (monks) and 311 for bhikkhunis (nuns), each accompanied by explanations. The Patimokkha was usually recited by the monks as part of the uposatha – a fortnightly ceremony held on the days of full moon and new moon. 

These rules of the Sangha outline aspects of monastic life – what its members should eat, how they should talk and walk, what they should wear, and how they should conduct themselves. These rules also provide guidelines for resolving disputes, and defining the relations between the Sangha and laity. The Vinaya Pitaka also gives information on the monks’ initial wandering lifestyle and eventual shift to settled living.

Sukumar Dutt, in his work Early Buddhist Monachism, observes that the settling down of monks can be traced back to vassavassa or the monsoon retreat. Monks were expected to stray in one place during the rainy season. According to Dutt, these temporary retreats would have eventually led to the monastic establishments known as viharas. 

Sangha and women 

The process by which one renounces household life and becomes a novice under a preceptor is called the pravrajya ceremony. As part of this rite, one had to shave their heads, wear ochre robes, and take vows. They then take refuge in the tisarana, and chant “Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi, Dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi, Saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi” (I take refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma, and the Sangha). 

Later, when a novice achieves full membership, they undergo the ordination ceremony or upasam-pada. Subsequently, they are permitted to possess only three robes, a clay or iron alms bowl, a razor, a needle, a waistband, and a water filter or strainer.

An important question at this juncture is the role of women in the Sangha. Buddhist texts reflect the social settings of its period and present women as temptresses, and often compare them with fire and venomous snakes. But historian Upinder Singh observed that a tradition that gave high regard to celibacy naturally perceived women as creatures of passion and therefore a threat. 

Later on, women got entry into the Sangha. Some narrations say that when the Buddha’s foster-mother Mahapajapati Gotami expressed interest in joining the monastic order, a bhikkhuni Sangha was formed. The Vinaya Pitaka contains a conversation between Ānanda and the Buddha in which the latter remarks that the Buddhist doctrine, which could have endured for a full thousand years, would instead decline in five hundred years due to the admission of women into the Sangha. 

However, the Sangha did not admit certain categories of women, including those who were pregnant, mothers with unweaned children, women considered rebellious or have close associations with young men, and those who did not have the consent of their parents or husbands to join. In addition to these restrictions, numerous other specific rules were established for nuns.

Despite this, it is important to view the role of women in Buddhism through a historically contextual lens. One concurs with Upinder Singh in concluding that the progressiveness of a tradition must be understood within the context of its historical period. Reading it in the milieu of the sixth century BCE, one can observe that Buddhism created a remarkably inclusive space for the spiritual pursuits of women.

Compared to other traditions of the time, Buddhist texts feature women with striking visibility. In the centuries that followed, both bhikkhunis (nuns) and upasikas (laywomen) played prominent roles as donors and patrons in the development of Buddhist stupa-monastery complexes.

Post Read Questions

What are the Triratna (Three Jewels) of Buddhism, and what role do they play in a Buddhist’s spiritual journey?

Taking refuge in the Buddha means placing trust in his awakening and recognising him as the one who has shown the path to freedom, compassion, and wisdom. Comment.

Explain the Buddhist notion of impermanence (anichcha). 

How does the doctrine of anattā (non-self) challenge conventional notions of identity and self?.

Reading it in the milieu of the sixth century BCE, Buddhism created a remarkably inclusive space for the spiritual pursuits of women. Discuss. 

(Sreekala M V is an Assistant Professor at the Department of History, GITAM Deemed to be University, Bengaluru.) 

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