The problem of ‘missing women’ and measuring gender progress

Sex ratio, a key indicator of gender progress

Sex ratio is a demographic metric that measures the number of females per thousand males in the total population. The CSR is the number of girls per thousand boys in the age group 0–6 years. 

According to the 2011 census, India’s sex ratio is 943 females per 1,000 males, whereas the child sex ratio is 919 girls per 1,000 boys. Data from earlier censuses suggest that the sex ratio improved over time, from 927 females per 1,000 males in 1991 and 933 females in 2001. NFHS-5 (2019-21) also recorded the sex ratio of 1,020 females per 1000 males and the child sex ratio of 929 girls per 1,000 boys. 

The sex ratio and CSR are important demographic indicators for analysing gender progress and broader demographic trends. In recent times, India’s sex ratio has shown a gradual improvement, but the CSR continues to remain a concern. The sex ratio is a measure of cumulative demographic processes like mortality, migration, and longevity. The CSR is an indicator of discrimination before and shortly after birth. 

The omission of these estimates from NFHS-6 (2023-2024) is not just a statistical gap. These indicators are fundamental to assessing gender equality, monitoring demographic trends, and evaluating the effectiveness of policies aimed at improving the status of girls.

Implications of omission 

As such, the omission of this data from NFHS-6 can have a significant impact on India’s goal of achieving gender justice. It limits the comparability of NFHS with census data, which enables longitudinal comparisons (making comparisons over prolonged periods of time) and state-level policy monitoring.

Sex ratio influences marriage and fertility trends, and as such, impacts demographic analysis. Governments use sex ratio and child sex ratio indicators for framing policies with respect to gender equity, maternal and child health, education, social welfare, etc. Thus, these missing demographic indicators have crucial implications for policy interventions. 

It would also affect the monitoring of India’s progress towards achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5 on gender equality. As mentioned earlier, the omission of the CSR is particularly concerning because it is one of the clearest indicators of gender discrimination. It is directly related to the persistence of son preference and patriarchal family systems. 

Child sex ratio and gender justice 

Historically, many communities in Asia have shown son preference, including in China, India, Korea, Indonesia, etc. Entrenched patriarchal norms like son preference have contributed to India’s skewed sex ratio. Sex-selective abortions, female foeticide and infanticide are consequences of such gender discriminatory notions. 

These practices are supported by familial and kinship rules that prioritise men over women in both everyday life and life-cycle rituals like birth, death, etc. The man is considered to be the true heir and symbol of one’s lineage. This often leads to the birth of a girl child not being considered a celebratory occasion. 

Srinivas Goli et al.’s study Patrilocality and Child Sex Ratios in India (2024) shows that households practice sex selection and daughter discrimination because of patrilocal norms, which means that there is co-residence between parents and sons. 

There are also regional variations, indicating social and cultural differences. For instance, Aradhana Kumari and Srinivas Goli’s study Skewed Child Sex Ratios in India (2022) shows that north India has a more male child preference than other regions compared to southern and north-east India. 

The problem of ‘missing women’

The low child sex ratio in India indicates that the problem of ‘missing women’ remains a pressing concern. Amartya Sen used the phrase ‘missing women’ in his essay More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing (1990) to indicate that there were far too few women relative to the number of men in Asia. A hundred million girls who should have been born, and grown into women, simply did not exist. 

The child sex ratio is important in measuring gender progress. The sex ratio indicates the presence of women in relation to men over the years. Globally, the number of women is slightly higher than the number of men, which is primarily because of women’s slightly longer average lifespan.

Moreover, the relationship between women’s education and sex ratio is more complex than is often assumed. Pradeep Chibber et al., in their study Missing Girls: Women’s Education and Declining Child Sex Ratios in India (2021), show that more-educated mothers have fewer girl children than less-educated mothers. But these girls are more likely to survive. 

Drawing from sub-district level data from the 2001 and 2011 censuses and detailed data on women’s education and fertility, they illustrate that among uneducated mothers, the focus should be on child treatment and survival. Among educated mothers, attitude-related campaigns emphasising the value of girl children are likely to be more successful.

Policy measures to address skewed sex ratio 

The government has introduced initiatives to address the issues of skewed sex ratio, including the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act (PC-PNDT), Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and conditional cash transfers (CCTs) schemes. 

However, stricter evaluation of such initiatives is needed to assess their effectiveness in improving childhood sex ratios. Wealthy, educated and urban families may need more observation and intervention.

Aradhana Kumari and Srinivas Goli’s study, Skewed Child Sex Ratios in India (2022), highlights that decreased state expenditure in education and health is a critical factor affecting girls more than boys. For parents, these factors undermine the value of daughters in society. Thus, concrete policy measures that target these sections of the population are required. 

The way forward 

Better regulation of private diagnostic clinics and monitoring of assisted reproductive technologies may be a step in the right direction. These are both health facilities utilised by wealthier and urban families, and need stronger legal measures. Linking corporate and institutional initiatives to gender equity by promoting gender sensitive workplace policies can also challenge patriarchal norms. 

Perhaps it is also time to think about social security measures and old-age support, which can reduce the dependency on sons. Son preference and patrilocality need to be addressed at this level by expanding affordable and accessible elderly healthcare.

Rather than excluding key gender indicators, what is required is more transparency, regulation, and a regular demographic monitoring framework that complements the decennial census. Administrative birth registration needs to be better integrated with survey data, and state-level dashboards need to be enabled to monitor the child sex ratio annually.

Post read questions

1. How do patriarchal institutions such as patrilineality and patrilocality contribute to India’s skewed child sex ratio?

2. Discuss the social and demographic consequences of an adverse child sex ratio in India.

3. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994 (PCPNDT Act) in addressing sex-selective practices in India.

4. How do public expenditure on education and health influence gender outcomes? Examine with reference to child sex ratio.

5. Critically examine whether legal interventions alone can eliminate son preference in India. Suggest a multidimensional policy framework.

(Rituparna Patgiri is an Assistant Professor at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Guwahati.) 

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