Key Takeaways:
At the international level, various treaties and conventions have been adopted to regulate maritime zones and prevent, and control marine pollution to promote the protection and sustainable use of marine ecosystems.
UN Convention on Laws of the Seas
1. UNCLOS is a comprehensive international law that lays down the broad frameworks for legitimate behaviour on, and use of, seas and oceans everywhere. It defines the rights and duties of nations regarding activities in the oceans and also addresses issues such as sovereignty, passage rights, and rights of exclusive economic usage. Demarcations of territorial waters and EEZs are a result of UNCLOS.
2. The territorial sea (TS) as per UNCLOS, is an area extending up to 12 nautical miles from the base of a country’s coastline. A state has full sovereignty over the waters encompassed within the TS.
3. According to the UNCLOS, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of a country extends from the baseline of its coast to 200 nautical miles (about 370 km) into the sea. A nation has exclusive rights to living and non-living resources in the waters and on the seabed within its EEZ.
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4. UNCLOS sets the general principles for equitable access and usage of ocean resources, and protection and conservation of biodiversity and marine ecology. But it doesn’t specify how these objectives have to be achieved. This is where the High Seas Treaty comes in.
5. Notably, UNCLOS does not contain explicit provisions regulating the conduct of belligerent parties during armed conflict, as its primary focus is on peacetime governance. The US is not a signatory to UNCLOS. India signed the convention on December 10, 1982, and formally ratified it on June 29, 1995.
Law of naval warfare
The law of naval warfare operates in parallel with UNCLOS during conflicts. So, it doesn’t matter if the Dena was directly participating in the conflict. It was a warship of the Iranian navy and, therefore, a legitimate target.
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974
1. The SOLAS Convention is generally regarded as the most important of all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships. India is signatory to the convention.
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2. The main objective of the SOLAS Convention is to specify minimum standards for the construction, equipment and operation of ships, compatible with their safety. Flag States are responsible for ensuring that ships under their flag comply with its requirements, and a number of certificates are prescribed in the Convention as proof that this has been done.
High Seas Treaty
1. The High Seas Treaty has often been compared with the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change in its significance and potential impact.
2. The treaty, which was concluded in March 2023, deals only with oceans that are outside the national jurisdiction of any country. Areas outside of EEZs of every country are known as high seas or international waters. They constitute about 64%, roughly two-thirds, of the total ocean area and are considered global commons. They belong to no one and everyone enjoys equal rights for navigation, overflight, economic activities, scientific research, or laying of infrastructure like undersea cables.
3. The High Seas Treaty has four main objectives:
➤ Demarcation of marine protected areas (MPAs), rather like there are protected forests or wildlife areas;
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➤ Sustainable use of marine genetic resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising from them;
➤ Initiation of the practice of environmental impact assessments for all major activities in the oceans; and
➤ Capacity building and technology transfer.
4. Notably, India signed the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement, or the High Seas Treaty at the United Nations General Assembly in New York on September 25, 2024.
5. On 19 September 2025, the High Seas Treaty reached the milestone of 60 state ratifications needed to trigger its entry into force. Following the 120-day countdown, the High Seas Treaty officially entered into force on 17 January 2026 and is now legally binding. Governments must now accelerate implementation and continue ratifying to strengthen global ocean protection.
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| Difference between signing and ratification of a treaty |
| 📍Ratification is the process by which a country agrees to be legally bound to the provisions of an international law. This is separate from a mere signing on to an international law.
📍Signing indicates that a country agrees with the provisions of the international law concerned, and is willing to abide by it. But till it ratifies it, the process for which varies from country to country, it is not legally bound to follow that law. |
MARPOL Convention
In 1973, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL Convention) was adopted. It deals with the prevention of pollution by all substances carried in ships, including oil, chemicals, harmful substances, and ship-generated sewage and garbage. India is a signatory to this Convention.
Ballast Water Management Convention
To control invasive aquatic species introduced through shipping, the Ballast Water Management Convention was adopted in 2004. It established standards and procedures for the management and control of ships’ ballast water and sediments. As of now, India is not a signatory to the BWM Convention.
BEYOND THE NUGGET: Exercise MILAN 2026
1. The Indian Navy last month hosted three major maritime events, including the IFR, the MILAN-2026, and the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) Conclave of Chiefs in Visakhapatnam between February 15 and 25.
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2. MILAN 2026 was aimed at bringing together navies from across the globe to strengthen interoperability, maritime domain awareness, and collective response capabilities.
3. Exercise MILAN, launched in 1995 with four navies at Port Blair, has evolved into a premier Multilateral Exercise with partner navies across the globe participating in 2024.
4. This was the 13th edition of the exercise. Navies of 74 countries and a total of 85 ships, including 19 foreign warships, participated in the exercise, including delegations and assets from the US and Iran.
Post Read Questions
(1) With reference to the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), consider the following statements:
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1. The EEZ of a country extends from the baseline of its coast to 12 nautical miles into the sea.
2. A nation has exclusive rights to non-living resources in the waters and does not have any rights over living resources within its EEZ.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
(2) With reference to the MILAN-2026, consider the following statements:
1. The MILAN-2026 was organised by the Indian Navy.
2. Navies of more than 50 countries participated in the exercise.
3. The first edition of the exercise was held in 2005 at Visakhapatnam.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None
(Sources: Was US legally right in sinking Iranian ship?, Knowledge nugget of the day: High Seas Treaty, India’s role in global fight against marine pollution, highseasalliance.org)
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