How Indore water contamination brings groundwater issues to the surface

Status of India’s groundwater

India is the largest consumer of groundwater in the world, extracting approximately 230 cubic kilometres each year, which accounts for more than one-fourth of the world’s annual groundwater extraction. Furthermore, nearly 85 per cent of the country’s drinking water needs are being fulfilled by groundwater sources. 

The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and the State Governments annually assess the dynamic groundwater resources of the country, which is divided into a total of 6,762 Assessment Units (Blocks/Taluks/Mandals). Their 2025 report suggests that the country has a total of 448.52 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) of annual groundwater recharge – an increase from 432 BCM in 2017 –  and 247.22 BCM has been extracted in the same year. 

Notably, a study using climate models by the University of Michigan suggests that if current trends continue, the rate of groundwater extraction in India could triple by 2080. The stress is already visible at the regional levels. 

Regional analysis reveals that 730 units have already been categorised as ‘Over-exploited’ (over 100% extraction), 201 as ‘Critical’ (90-100% extraction) and 758 as ‘Semi-critical’ (70-90% extraction), 4,946 units (73.14 %) as ‘Safe’. Water of 127 assessment units is categorised as ‘saline’. 

Analysis of States/UTs data shows Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan as over-exploited, Delhi as critical and Tamil Nadu and Puducherry in the semi-critical category. Nine states/UTs, which include Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and Puducherry, were found to have more than one-fourth of their total units over safe limits.

What is causing water stress?

Rapid urbanisation, population growth, industrial needs, and unsustainable farming practices are putting more pressure on already stressed water resources. The Himalayas channel rain and snow glaciers melt water into the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains, where alluvium (loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel) forms the most extensive aquifers. These plains cover only 20 per cent of India’s total geographical area but contain 60 per cent of the country’s groundwater reserves.

However, the indiscriminate withdrawal, especially for water-intensive crops such as rice and sugarcane, is causing over-exploitation of groundwater in these regions. This depletion poses a serious threat in the central and southern parts of India, where replenishing hard-rock aquifers is very challenging. 

Although coastal regions have thick alluvium, their aquifers are vulnerable to seawater intrusion. Aquifers formed by alluvial deposits are easily penetrable compared to, for example, the hard-rock aquifers like in the plateau regions of central India.

Major pollutants contaminating water

About 60 per cent of groundwater recharge comes from monsoon rainfall, which is unevenly distributed. Over one-third of total rainfall is concentrated in only four monsoon months (June-September). The current groundwater situation of India has been majorly shaped by policies promoting the green revolution with subsidised electricity and low-cost pumping technologies. 

Initially, it was aimed at boosting agricultural production, ensuring food security and alleviating poverty. But in recent decades, it was argued that these subsidies led to overexploitation of groundwater. Even though substantial groundwater resources are available nationally, the concern mainly is related to their uneven regional distribution. Furthermore, groundwater quality is increasingly being affected by factors like industrialisation, agricultural practices, urbanisation and climate change.

The CGWB’s Annual Groundwater Quality Report (2024) revealed that over 440 districts have their water contaminated by pollutants such as nitrates, fluoride, arsenic, uranium, heavy metals or others at various levels. The major sources of contamination are chemicals used in agricultural practices, industrial waste, and sometimes naturally occurring heavy metals like arsenic, uranium, fluoride, etc. 

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has prescribed that after treatment, the drinking water should conform to the Indian Standard (IS) 10500. The IS 10500 outlines the acceptable limit of various substances in drinking water, including heavy metals such as arsenic, and other parameters like the pH value of water, its turbidity, the total dissolved solids in it, and the colour and odour.

The implications of declining water quality and availability extend across livelihoods, agricultural practices, and water and food security. 

Implications for public health, ecosystems and biodiversity

The report found uranium contamination in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. Lead Contamination was localised and found in Assam, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Rajasthan. Arsenic contamination is spatially concentrated mainly in the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra alluvial plains, with the highest exceedances reported in West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Punjab.

The presence of these chemicals and heavy metals in drinking water can cause serious health implications. Exceeding the limits of chloride, fluoride, nitrate, etc, can cause issues such as cardiovascular complications, gastrointestinal discomfort, dental and skeletal fluorosis and methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome) in infants. 

Lead, arsenic, and uranium can have adverse neurological effects, carcinogenic potential, and kidney toxicity. Water contamination further adds extra expenditure on filtration systems apart from already high health expenditures, adversely affecting vulnerable sections. 

Beyond human health, over-extraction can also cause soil-salinisation, degrading soil health and in turn reducing crop yields. Groundwater depletion also has consequences for various ecosystems and biodiversity. The reduction in groundwater discharge to streams alters the river hydrology, affecting aquatic habitats, fish migration patterns, and the river nutrient cycle. 

As the water table goes down, the quality of groundwater also degrades, and water becomes saline and contaminated, which threatens the health of aquatic ecosystems. In some regions, excessive groundwater extraction is causing land subsidence or a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface.

Need to strengthen surveillance of groundwater quality and extraction 

Water is a state subject, and therefore the primary responsibility for water management and safe drinking water rests with state governments. However, the Central Government has also taken several steps in this regard with schemes like Ground Water Management & Regulation, Jal Shakti Abhiyan, Jal Sanchay Jan Bhagidari, Atal Bhujal Yojana, etc. 

These policies largely focus on enhancing water availability and promoting groundwater recharge. However, there is a need to strengthen national surveillance of groundwater contamination and extraction. Investment in large-scale water treatment plants and verifiable steps to check sewage of urban areas directly flowing into the rivers are also needed.

Also, there is a need to put strict extraction limits in already over-exploited zones and incentivise water-efficient and sustainable agricultural practices. This will also help in freeing up electricity for other non-agricultural uses. 

Groundwater depletion and quality degradation have implications for safe drinking water, agriculture, industry and public health. Even though water is a state subject, there are reasons to institutionalise sustainable groundwater management practices at the national level. At the same time, strengthening the continuous monitoring of both groundwater quality and extraction rate by states in their different regions would further help. 

Furthermore, subsidies and incentives need to be focused on promoting crop diversification, water-efficient irrigation techniques, rainwater harvesting, and other groundwater recharge methods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi has rightly called for adopting “Reduce, Reuse, Recharge, and Recycle’ for securing India’s water future”. 

Post read questions

India is the largest extractor of groundwater in the world, accounting for more than one-fourth of the world’s annual groundwater extraction. Evaluate the availability, quality, and regulation of groundwater in India.

The Bhagirathpura locality of Indore, Madhya Pradesh faced a public health emergency after contaminated water led to a vomiting and diarrhoea outbreak. Analyse the causes, patterns, and consequences of groundwater contamination across the country. 

Evaluate the role of agricultural policies, especially those associated with the Green Revolution, in shaping India’s present groundwater crisis.

Examine the ecological consequences of groundwater depletion with special reference to rivers, wetlands, and land subsidence.

Assess the effectiveness of government initiatives such as Atal Bhujal Yojana and Jal Shakti Abhiyan in addressing groundwater stress. What more needs to be done?

(Abhinav Rai is a Doctoral candidate at the Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi.)

Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with ashiya.parveen@indianexpress.com.

Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for January 2026. Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week.

Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.