Is environment a silent casualty of war?

In contrast, modern warfare has become more intense and extends across land, deep seas, and airspace. Its impacts are not only economic and social but also environmental, causing degradation of natural resources. 

The 1992 Rio Declaration also notes that warfare is inherently destructive to sustainable development and underscores the duties of nations to respect international environmental law during armed conflicts.

But the ongoing conflicts in West Asia made the issue of environmental degradation a growing matter of concern. For example, Greenpeace estimated that during the first 120 days of the Gaza war, more than half a million tonnes of CO2 were emitted, alongside severe damage to the water and sanitation facilities. 

Similarly, the US-Israel war on Iran, particularly missile strikes on oil infrastructure and the use of drone warfare, is associated with emissions, toxic air pollution, and potential marine contamination. 

These developments signal a shift from episodic environmental disasters to a more persistent and cumulative ecological crisis. 

From WWI to the Russia-Ukraine war 

The environmental legacy of warfare has recently been recognised as a critical dimension of war and conflict. However, the environment has historically borne the brunt of wars and conflicts. For example, several studies estimated that around 350, 000 hectares of forest were destroyed during World War I. 

World War II involved a large-scale mobilisation of human and natural resources across the continents. It is often described as a war that both shaped and was shaped by nature. Countries like Norway saw the destruction of 15 million acres of property, crops, forests, and wildlife. In the Netherlands, the German Army flooded farmland with saltwater to starve the enemy into defeat, thus ruining 17 per cent of the Dutch agricultural land. 

The Vietnam War differed from previous wars of the twentieth century, as environmental destruction became a deliberate military strategy. Under Operation Ranch Hand, the US deployed 19 million gallons of herbicides, such as Agent Orange, on an industrial scale to eliminate massive tracts of forest cover and farmland vegetation. Over 5 million acres of forest and 500,000 acres of crops were destroyed during the operations. 

During the Gulf War, Iraqi troops attacked Kuwaiti oil wells and dumped around 4 to 11 million barrels of oil directly into the Persian Gulf to foil an attack on Kuwait by US Marines to expel Saddam Hussein’s forces. This was the largest oil spill in history, contaminating approximately 800 km of coastline and damaging marine ecosystems, including shrimp and prawn beds of the Persian Gulf. 

More recently, the Russia-Ukraine war has severely impacted the environment, including forests and wildlife habitats in Ukraine. It has damaged many Emerald Network sites of the country, including many unique steppe habitats of the highest nature value. These sites are protected under the Bern Convention.  

West Asia war and environmental degradation

The ongoing conflict involving Iran illustrates how modern warfare produces wide-ranging and long-lasting environmental consequences that extend far beyond immediate physical destruction. The conflict has given rise to various environmental problems. Foremost among these is a sharp increase in greenhouse gas emissions due to military operations. This is adding to the problem of climate change. The carbon accounting platform Greenly estimated that the US military alone released almost 2 billion metric tons of greenhouse gases in just the first six days of the war. 

Air pollution due to toxic chemicals is another significant concern. Attacks on oil depots and refineries have produced thick smoke containing soot and toxic gases, and, in some cases, have resulted in black rain. Reports from southern Lebanon indicate serious concern about the aerial spraying of concentrated glyphosate over agricultural fields. Such pollution poses immediate health risks, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.  

Marine ecosystems, especially in the Persian Gulf, are also under threat. Damage to oil tankers and coastal infrastructure increases the risk of oil spills and chemical leakage. Additionally, strikes on industrial areas release hazardous materials, including heavy metals and construction debris, which can contaminate air, soil and groundwater. The war has also impacted desalination plants in the region, which are a critical source of drinking water for the local populations.

Such environmental damage raises a pertinent question: are the existing legal and policy frameworks adequate enough to deal with it? 

Environmental protection during war and conflict

The Vietnam War marked a turning point in the recognition of environmental protection during war, because of its large-scale ecological damage, combined with the rise of awareness in the 1970s. 

Consequently, in 1976, the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (“ENMOD Convention”) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. It bans the use of environmental modification techniques as a weapon of war and conflict. 

Also, special provisions related to environmental protection were added in the 1977 Additional Protocol (Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts) of the Geneva Convention, 1949. Article 35(3) of the protocol prohibits state parties from using methods or means of warfare causing “widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment”. 

Article 55 of the Additional Protocol requires that care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against damage, and it also prohibits the use of weapons or methods that could harm the environment. 

In addition, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 1998, contains a provision on Environmental war crimes, which prohibits conduct such as intentionally launching an attack with the knowledge that it will cause incidental widespread, long-term, and severe damage to the natural environment.  

More recently, in 2022, the UN International Law Commission adopted draft principles on the protection of the environment, which are applicable before, during or after an armed conflict. It includes measures to be taken by the states for the protection of the environment, including the designation of protected zones, the protection of the environment of indigenous people, peace operations, measures for the displaced people, etc. 

However, these principles are merely guidelines for the nations and not binding in nature.

Environment as a victim of war, and the need for reform

To sum up, the discussion about war and the environment becomes increasingly important considering the current climate crisis our planet is experiencing. The environmental consequences of modern warfare, as seen in the ongoing conflict in West Asia, highlight a critical but often overlooked dimension of armed conflict. Addressing this challenge requires both legal and policy reforms. 

Implementation of the draft Principles will undoubtedly serve as a point of dialogue for states to further the discussion of how to protect the environment during the conflict cycle. However, the scope needs to be expanded to include carbon emissions. 

Also, there needs to be independent monitoring mechanisms in the conflict zone to document the damage and inform response strategies. Thirdly, greater emphasis needs to be placed on accountability, where the restoration of the destroyed environment could be included as a priority. 

While the Rome Statute provides a basis for prosecuting environmental damage, the threshold of the damage being ‘widespread, long-term and severe’ limits its effectiveness in addressing contemporary forms of harm. 

Recognising the environment as one of the main victims of war and conflict is essential to achieve long-term peace and the health of the planetary ecosystem. In this context, growing global discussions around recognising ecocide as an international crime offer an important opportunity.

Post read questions

Examine the major environmental impacts of contemporary warfare with reference to the West Asia war.

Air pollution, marine contamination, and ecosystem damage are key environmental consequences of recent conflicts in West Asia. Discuss.

How do attacks on fossil fuel infrastructure during wars aggravate both local environmental crises and global climate change? Illustrate using recent examples.

Critically examine the effectiveness of international legal frameworks in addressing environmental damage during armed conflicts.

Evaluate the proposition that recognising ecocide as an international crime can strengthen environmental protection during armed conflict.

(Renuka is a Doctoral researcher at Himachal Pradesh National law university, Shimla.)

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