The Levant
The term “Levant” has its roots in the French word “levant”, meaning “rising” or “to rise”, which refers to the direction of the sunrise in the east. This etymology can be traced further back to the Latin “levare”, which also means “to lift” or “to raise”. The word entered English in 1497 to denote lands along the eastern Mediterranean.
The historically rich region of Levant — encompassing Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, with parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Cyprus also often included — has long been a crossroads of civilisations. More than just a geographical entity, the Levant embodies layers of history, culture, and identity.
Bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Arabian Desert to the east, with the Taurus Mountains in the north and the Sinai Peninsula in the south, its strategic position has made it a vital link between Africa and Eurasia. As a hub of trade, migration, and cultural exchange, the Levant has continuously influenced and been influenced by the world beyond its borders.
The highlighted part in the map shows the Levant, which encompasses Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, with parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Cyprus also often included. (source – Wikimedia)
This land has witnessed some of humanity’s earliest settlements and innovations. Around 10,000 BCE, communities here pioneered agriculture, and cities like Jericho and Byblos — among the oldest continuously inhabited places on Earth — were built. The Levant gave rise to great civilisations, including the Canaanites, Phoenicians, and the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah.
Today, while its historical legacy remains profound, the region grapples with modern challenges rooted in colonial struggles, wars of independence, and ongoing conflicts, particularly the Israel-Palestine dispute.
Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, a turning point
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was a turning point for the Levant. What followed was not a path to self-determination but a new era of colonial rule. Under the Mandate System created by the League of Nations, Britain and France carved up the former Ottoman territories, shaping the modern borders of West Asia in ways that often ignored the realities on the ground.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 divided the Levant between the two colonial powers. Britain took control of modern-day Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine, driven by strategic interests like securing access to the Mediterranean and maintaining its connection to British India. France, on the other hand, took Syria and Lebanon, seeking influence along the Levantine coast and its hinterlands. These borders, drawn by distant politicians with little regard for the region’s intricate social fabric, lumped together communities with distinct identities, beliefs, and aspirations.
The consequences of these artificial divisions were profound. Iraq was cobbled together with Sunni Arabs, Shia Arabs, and Kurds, leading to internal tensions that continue to this day. Lebanon’s political system, designed to allocate power among Christians, Sunni and Shia Muslims, and Druze, institutionalised sectarian divisions rather than fostering unity. In Palestine, Britain’s policies — especially the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which supported the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people”— set the stage for a conflict that remains unresolved more than a century later.
Colonial Legacies
During the British mandate in Palestine (1920–1948), Jewish immigration and land acquisition were encouraged, often at the expense of the Arab population. This created deep resentment and violent clashes, planting the seeds of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Meanwhile, in Jordan, Britain granted independence but ensured the Hashemite (descendants of the Prophet) monarchy under King Abdullah I retained power, aligning the new state with British interests.
Syria and Lebanon gained independence from France only after struggles that were both political and armed. But freedom came with its own challenges. Syria experienced a series of coups, reflecting the fragility of its political system, while Lebanon’s sectarian-based governance structure led to cycles of instability, with its divisions repeatedly exploited by internal and external forces.
The legacy of these colonial decisions still looms large over the Levant. Borders drawn in European capitals and policies crafted with imperial priorities have left the region grappling with conflict and fragmentation. For the people of the Levant, this history is not just a distant past—it’s a lived reality, shaping their identities, their struggles, and their hopes for the future.
Conflicts in the Levant
The legacy of the mandate system can be felt in the conflicts and authoritarian regimes that dominate the Levant today. The modern borders of the Levant ignored centuries of cultural, ethnic, and religious coexistence, and often sowed the seeds of division and conflict.
Lebanon
In Lebanon, the French introduced a confessional political system that divided power among religious groups, entrenching sectarian divisions. Although Lebanon gained independence in 1946, these divisions created fault lines that eventually erupted into the Lebanese Civil War from 1975 to 1990.
Syria
Syria faced a different but equally disruptive colonial strategy. The French sought to divide the country into smaller, semi-autonomous regions along religious and ethnic lines. They empowered minorities — Alawites, Druze, and Christians — through disproportionate recruitment into the military and administrative ranks at the expense of the Sunni Arab nationalist majority. The military became an avenue for social mobility for the Alawites, who eventually dominated its leadership.
After Syria’s independence in 1946, the military’s internal divisions fuelled repeated coups until Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite officer, seized power in 1970, cementing minority rule over the Sunni majority. What began as a colonial tactic of control evolved into a system of authoritarianism that still haunts Syria today. Even after the collapse of the Assad regime on December 8, the country continues to grapple with uncertainty and unrest.
Jordan
Similarly, in Jordan, Britain preferred a monarchical system over democracy, prioritising a centralised, predictable authority that could enforce order and align with British interests. By placing the Hashemite monarchy in power, Britain secured a reliable ally to safeguard its interests in the region, particularly the Suez Canal and routes to India. The choice sidelined any possibility of democratic governance, which might have fostered nationalism and challenged British authority.
Israel-Palestine conflict
The Israel-Palestine conflict has also left a deep imprint on neighbouring countries in the Levant. Jordan was directly involved in the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948 and 1967, losing the West Bank and East Jerusalem in the 1967 Arab–Israeli War or the Six-Day War. After the establishment of Israel and the occupation of the West Bank, Jordan became home to a massive arrival of Palestinian refugees.
The activities of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) in Jordan, including cross-border attacks on Israel, created tensions that escalated into open conflict between Jordan’s government and the PLO. It finally ended up in King Hussein’s order for a military crackdown on Palestinian militants, leading to a brutal conflict known as Black September, in which thousands of Palestinians were killed, and the Jordanian army expelled the PLO from Jordan. Despite a peace treaty with Israel in 1994, Jordan remains deeply connected to the Israel-Palestine conflict, with the possibility of future Israeli annexation of the West Bank threatening another wave of refugees.
Syria’s role in the conflict has been no less significant. It joined the wars of 1948, 1967, and 1973, losing the Golan Heights to Israel in the Six-Day War. Though direct military clashes with Israel have been rare since 1973, Syria has remained a central player in the “Axis of Resistance” against Israel, aligning with Iran and supporting groups opposed to Israeli policies. During the Lebanese Civil War, Syria intervened to maintain its influence and prevent Lebanon from becoming a pro-Israeli or anti-Syrian stronghold. The war deepened the already complex web of tensions in the region, with Israeli and Syrian forces even clashing during the conflict.
Thus, the struggles of the Levant are deeply rooted in a history of external manipulation and internal fragmentation. From the mandate system to the ongoing impacts of the Israel-Palestine conflict, the people of this region have borne the weight of decisions made far from their homeland.
Post Read Questions
Which countries are included in the Levant region? What is the historical significance of the Levant?
In what ways has the Levant’s strategic position as a crossroads of civilizations impacted its historical and cultural development?
What are the potential consequences of the Israel-Palestine conflict on neighboring countries within the Levant, such as Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria?
How might the displacement of populations due to the Israel-Palestine conflict affect the demographic and cultural composition of Levantine countries?
(Dr. Shameer Modongal is a Fulbright Nehru Postdoctoral Research Fellow and a Visiting Scholar in Residence at the School of International Studies, American University, Washington DC.)
Read other articles from the series on Conflicts in West Asia:
Conflicts in West Asia: Post-Assad Syria grapples with deep divides
Conflicts in West Asia: India’s trade and diaspora at risk amid prolonged Gaza War
Conflicts in West Asia: Implications of escalating Gaza war for India
Conflicts in West Asia: Israel-Iran war of abrasion
Conflicts in West Asia: A brief history of the Israel-Palestine conflict
Conflicts in West Asia: Iraq in disarray
Conflicts in West Asia: Israel-Hamas war and the Yemen quagmire
Conflicts in West Asia: Kurds and their struggle with statelessness
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Hezbollah supporters wave the group’s and Palestinian flags in the southern Beirut suburb of Dahiyeh, Lebanon, Oct. 7, 2023. (AP Photo) 
The highlighted part in the map shows the Levant, which encompasses Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, with parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Cyprus also often included. (source – Wikimedia)
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