Chaturanga to checkmate: How chess spread from India to the world

As Thipsay put it, “In the words of one of the greatest chessmasters of all time, Siegbert Tarrasch, ‘Chess, like love, like music, has the power to make men happy.’”

The birth of chess: From Chaturanga to Chatrang

Archaeological excavations have revealed that among the many achievements of the urban civilisations of Mohenjodaro and Harappa, flourishing around 5,000 years ago in the fertile Indus Valley (now in modern-day Pakistan), were game pieces used in activities akin to what we now call board games. Interestingly, these pieces could be played on various surfaces, including directly on the ground.

Chess Grandmaster Yuri Averbakh, in his work A History of Chess: From Chaturanga to the Present Day, highlights references to dice games in the sacred Hindu scriptures Rigveda and Atharvaveda centuries later.

The earliest known mention of a board game in Indian literature appears in Harshacharita, a biography of King Harsha written by Bāṇa around 625 CE. The text states, “Only ashtapadas teach the positions of the chaturanga,” linking chaturanga, the Sanskrit term for “four limbs” (chatur for four and anga for limb) to ashtapada, an ancient game which was played on an 8×8 board.

According to Averbakh, the evolution of chess likely followed a series of stages. It began with ashtapada. Over time, simple game pieces were replaced by miniature chariots, and the game shifted to a military-themed format centered on battles involving these chariots. This eventually led to Chaturanga, which introduced the four arms of an army — chariots, cavalry, elephants, and infantry — and transformed into a formalised strategy game. The game further evolved into a two-player contest with a crucial rule: capturing the opponent’s ruler was necessary to win. Finally, the use of dice was eliminated, making the game entirely skill-based.

The game of Ashtapada (Source: Wikipedia)

Other texts, like the epic Mahabharata, describe dice games where characters such as Nala and Yudhishthira gamble away their kingdoms. “One of the biggest misconceptions about chess,” says Thipsay, “was its association with gambling, which led to its prohibition in parts of North India. In reality, it was a strategic warfare game, designed to teach military tactics to princes and kings.”

By the 10th century, Arabic historian al-Mas’udi documented chess in India, describing elaborate pieces and the high stakes of wagering wealth — or even limbs — during games.

British chess historian HJR Murray, in his pioneering work A History of Chess, explains that the game was first adopted by the Persians, passed on to the Muslim world, and eventually introduced to Christian Europe. Chatrang, or Shatrang as it was called in Persia, was thus a modified version of the chaturanga. Persian and Arabic traditions also credit India as the birthplace of chess.

An illustration from a Persian manuscript “A treatise on chess” (Source: Wikipedia)

Interestingly, American writer David Shenk, in The Immortal Game: A History of Chess, suggests that chess may have even originated as an older import from China. He argues that the game likely evolved along the Silk Road, which facilitated not only the exchange of goods such as cinnamon, pepper, and silk but also cultural practices and pastimes. However, chaturanga and chatrang marked a departure from previous board games in the region, as “these games contained no dice or other instruments of chance,” Shenk notes.

Similar games continue to be played across Asia, including the Burmese sittnyin, the Malay chator, the Tibetan chandaraki, the Chinese siang k’i, the Korean tjyang keui, and the Japanese sho-gi.

The renaissance of Chess

The second half of the 15th century was a transformative period, marked by the invention of printing and the dawn of the age of geographical discoveries. This era sparked a surge of interest in history, science, and art, paving the way for the Renaissance in Western Europe. It was also the time when chess underwent a significant reform, notably enhancing the movement of the bishop and, more importantly, the queen.

The rule changes transformed chess into a much more dynamic and complex game, making it more engaging. Murray observes, “It is quite possible that the reform of chess saved the game.” Shenk adds, “Whether by accident or design, the Renaissance itself was reflected in the new, more engaging format of the game, which quickly became the universal standard. Modern chess was born.”

Scholars such as Averbakh concur that the new rules were likely invented in Spain. Spanish historian Ricardo Calvo identified a group of young poets from Valencia who wrote the Scachs d’Amor (Chess of Love), the first known description of the revamped game. In Spain, the game became known as “ajedrez de la dama.”

In the Indian context, too, the folk game of chess underwent a rapid transformation. After the 1857 uprising, the British government took direct control replacing the East India Company. By the mid-1880s, thousands of Indians had earned degrees, all taught in English and influenced by British political ideals. “A by-product of this development was that Western chess became more widespread – at least among this educated class of Indians,” observes Daniel King.

From around 1850, chess books began to be published in various Indian languages such as Marathi, Bengali, Urdu, and Hindi. Meanwhile, the first Indian newspapers, starting in 1833, regularly featured chess columns, helping to further cement European chess rules.

Shatranj Ke Khiladi by Satyajit Ray (Source: Wikipedia)

The contrasting tempos of Eastern and Western chess are symbolised in the 1977 film Shatranj Ke Khilari by Satyajit Ray. Set in 1856, the film uses chess to represent the clash between India’s contemplative old ways and the British colonial rule’s faster, pragmatic approach. In one scene, the chess players Meer and Mirza are interrupted by a visitor, Nandlal:

Nandlal: I see you’re playing the Indian way

Meer: What other way?

Nandlal: The British way.

Mirza: Don’t say the [East India] Company’s taken over chess, too.

In 1878, Calcutta hosted the first recorded round-robin chess tournament in India, where British and Indian players competed. “There is also the legend of Moheschunder Bannerjee, a Bengali chess master, renowned for his exceptional skill,” added Thipsay.

By the early 20th century, tournaments following Western chess rules were becoming more common.

As national consciousness grew, Indians began organising their own tournaments, with the first ‘All-India’ event held at the Beaman Chess Club in Bombay in 1909. A key milestone came in 1924 when Vinayak Kashinath Khadilkar became the first Indian to compete in the British Chess Championship. Despite losing his first four games, Khadilkar went on to defeat notable opponents, including RHV Scott, the 1920 British champion. His performance, despite early setbacks, was a major achievement for Indian chess on the global stage.

Sultan Khan & Fatima: Pioneers of Indian Chess in Europe

Born in 1905 into a poor Muslim family in the village of Mitha Tiwana (now in Pakistan), Sultan Khan’s chess journey began at age nine. He learned the game from his father. The version he played was distinct from the Western variant, featuring Indian rules and local variations.

Sultan Khan (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

In 1925, the Maharaja of Patiala, Sir Bhupinder Singh, hosted an annual chess tournament at his palace in Chail, near Shimla. This event was pivotal for Indian chess. Borislav Kostic, a well-known Yugoslav master, participated, and the performance of Indian players like N.R. Joshi and Kishan Lal Sarda against him indicated that Indian players were ready for international competition. This led Sultan Khan’s patron, Sir Umar Hayat Khan, to hire Lal as a coach.

Colonel Nawab Malik Sir Umar Hayat Khan, an avid chess player and the landowner of Mitha Tiwana, recognised Sultan Khan’s talent when Sultan approached him seeking work. Khan welcomed him into his household, trained him in Western chess, supported him financially, and facilitated his journey to Europe. As Daniel King asserts, “Sultan Khan would be unknown in the West, or even outside the Punjab, if it weren’t for his patron – and master.”

Sultan Khan’s first recorded tournament result came in 1926 at the YMCA Championship in Shimla, where he triumphed. In 1929, Khan arrived in London, marking the start of his international journey. At the time, José Raúl Capablanca, one of the greatest Cuban-born chess players, was in the midst of his reign. Under Sir Umar’s patronage, Khan faced Capablanca in a high-profile match. Although Khan faltered in the opening, he emerged victorious.

Khan’s victory in the London Gambit Tournament, held later in June of that year, further solidified his reputation. Due to his limited English, a certain Mr Bosworth Smith spoke on his behalf, stating, “This victory is a great gain for India, and it opens the door for all members of the Empire.”

By 1932, Sultan Khan was not the only member of Sir Umar’s household making waves in the chess world. 18-year-old Miss Fatima, the youngest player of the tournament, created a stir. Raised in strict purdah, Fatima moved to England with Sir Umar and began playing chess. While Sultan Khan had already made his mark, Fatima added an intriguing element to the British chess scene.

However, with the death of Sir Umar, Sultan Khan’s engagement with competitive chess in Europe became impossible. He lacked the means to support himself or make the journey back abroad. Moreover, after World War II, Europe lay in economic ruins. “The Empire that Khan had conquered on the chessboard was disappearing,” notes King. “First India and Pakistan, and then colonies all over the world were pragmatically granted independence by the no-longer-mighty mother country.”

A new era of chess

Sultan Khan’s return to India and subsequent fade from the spotlight coincided with a nation moving toward Independence and Partition. In these turbulent times, as Daniel King suggests, chess was pushed to the background.

Khan and Fatima were, however, not the only players from the subcontinent to make their mark in chess. Following their example, many aspiring players travelled to Britain to compete in international events. Among them were Niaz Murshed, Dibyendu Barua, Pravin Thipsay, Krishnan Sasikiran, Surya Sekhar Ganguly, Pentala Harikrishna, and, of course, Viswanathan Anand and others.

Indian chess continued to gain prominence. Rani Hamid won the Ladies’ title multiple times in the 1980s and 1990s, while players like Bhagyashree Sathe, Vasanti Khadilkar, and Humpy Koneru made their own impact. In the 2000s, Ramachandran Ramesh and Abhijit Kunte triumphed in the Open Championship. However, this success eventually led to a change: by 2003, the British Chess Federation restricted the tournament to British and Irish citizens.

“The desi (indigenous) style of chess is more complex, and this mastery often allows Indian players to excel on the international stage,” says Thipsay.

Daniel King argues that for about 25 years, from the late 1970s to 2003, British chess tournaments served as a proving ground for many players from the subcontinent. This period played a crucial role in India’s rise as one of the world’s top chess-playing nations.

In 2000, Viswanathan Anand became FIDE World Chess Champion, and by 2007, he was the undisputed World Champion, successfully defending his title multiple times before losing it to Magnus Carlsen in 2013.

“Recently, chess has gained significant attention, driven not only by the achievements of Indian players but also by the global popularity of the Netflix drama The Queen’s Gambit,” says Aradhya Garg, International Master in chess, in an interview with indianexpress.com. He adds, “India’s pipeline in women’s chess is also impressive, with the country winning gold in both the men’s and women’s categories at the 2024 Chess Olympiad.”

While Anand, and the current generation of Indian players have surpassed Sultan Khan’s achievements, the latter’s brilliant career remains significant. At his peak, Sultan Khan was a formidable opponent, drawing with Alekhine in 1931 and defeating the likes of Capablanca, Flohr, and Rubinstein.

In a few centuries, similar stories may be written about Gukesh Dommaraju.

Further Reading

1. A History of Chess: From Chaturanga to the Present Day by Yuri Averbakh

2. A History of Chess by H.J.R. Murray

3. Sultan Khan by Daniel King

4. The Immortal Game: A History of Chess by David Shenk

5. Chess: The History of a Game by R. G. Eales