Written by Anushka Bandyopadhyay, Raktimava Bose and Saurabh Bandyopadhyay
Water underpins nearly every aspect of human well-being, from food security and sanitation to clean energy and public health. Yet, as cities expand, industries grow, and agriculture continues to dominate water use, we are confronting a sobering reality. In many parts of the world, water demand now exceeds what nature can sustainably supply. In India, farming remains the largest consumer, but domestic and industrial use is rising fast. Although India supports nearly 18 per cent of the global population, it possesses only 4 per cent of the world’s freshwater resources. A significant portion of this limited supply, ranging from 78 to 90 per cent, depending on the source, is consumed by agriculture alone. The result is a widening gap between what we need and what we have.
India’s emergence as a global agricultural leader is undeniable. It is the world’s largest producer of milk and spices, and the second-largest producer of fruits, vegetables, and fish. But this success hides a deeper crisis: Our water resources are being depleted faster than they can be replenished.
Over 80 per cent of India’s freshwater withdrawals go to agriculture, much of it lost to inefficient and unsustainable use. In Punjab, groundwater levels are falling by more than one metre every year, driven by the expansion of paddy cultivation and free electricity. According to the Central Ground Water Board, 78 per cent of Punjab’s administrative blocks are now over-exploited, up from 50 per cent in 2004. India is, quite literally, eating its way into a groundwater emergency.
What makes this worse is that our input-intensive, water-thirsty model isn’t even delivering on its core promise, that is, nutrition. Despite achieving food self-sufficiency, nutrition outcomes remain poor. NFHS-5 data show that 35.5 per cent of children under five are stunted, 32.1 per cent are underweight, and 16.6 per cent of the population remains undernourished. This mismatch between food security and nutritional security reflects a deeper flaw: Our incentives prioritise calorie-rich crops like rice and wheat, backed by water subsidies, at the cost of more nutritious, climate-resilient alternatives.
Irrigation, often seen as part of the problem, can also be part of the solution, if managed right. Beyond boosting yields, smart irrigation allows diversification into pulses, vegetables, and oilseeds, which improves household nutrition. It ensures fodder for livestock, raises rural incomes, and reduces distress migration. If used wisely, irrigation can help India grow not just more food, but better food.
The roots of the imbalance lie in flawed policy choices. In Punjab, the Green Revolution displaced traditional crops with paddy, and free electricity drove indiscriminate use of deep tubewells. In Maharashtra, sugarcane, grown on just 4 per cent of agricultural land, uses over 70 per cent of the state’s irrigation water. The impact is especially severe in drought-prone districts like Solapur. Gujarat, however, offers a model of reform. The Jyotigram Yojana, launched in the early 2000s, separated agricultural and domestic power feeders and introduced metered irrigation supply. The result — a 20 per cent drop in groundwater extraction and wider adoption of micro-irrigation in water-scarce regions like Saurashtra and Kutch.
A two-pronged approach
India needs a two-pronged approach: Increase water availability in underused regions like eastern India, and sharply reduce demand in over-extracted zones, especially the northwest.
First, we must rethink incentives. Minimum support prices (MSPs) should be aligned with agro-ecological realities. Supporting millets, pulses, and oilseeds through procurement in rainfed areas can align sustainability with dietary diversity. The 2023 declaration of the International Year of Millets was a welcome step, but it must be backed by consistent fiscal support, market access, and consumer awareness.
Second, we need smarter pricing of water and electricity. Though politically difficult, pilot projects suggest farmers do respond to price signals if better options are available. In Andhra Pradesh, prepaid smart meters on pumps led to a 15 per cent drop in electricity use and greater adoption of drip systems. When paired with efficient technology, pricing can nudge behaviour without coercion.
Third, India must scale up micro-irrigation. Despite 74 million hectares under irrigation, only 12 per cent is covered by drip and sprinkler systems. These can save 30 to 70 per cent of water depending on the crop and terrain. The main barriers, high upfront costs and limited awareness, can be overcome with public-private models, equipment leasing, and targeted subsidies for small and marginal farmers.
Fourth, and perhaps most crucial, is investing in farmer-led water literacy. Reforms will fail unless farmers change how they perceive and value water. Many still equate abundance with security, unaware that overuse today threatens tomorrow’s resilience. Community-led initiatives like water user associations, participatory irrigation management, and groundwater audits, as in Maharashtra’s Jalyukta Shivar Abhiyan, can embed conservation into daily practice and foster collective action.
India cannot resolve its food challenge without fixing how it uses water. Water must be treated as a finite economic resource, not a limitless political entitlement. This requires tough but essential reforms — rethinking subsidies, realigning procurement, pricing inputs rationally, and building trust with farmers.
In an era of rising climate uncertainty, India must shift from growing crops based on political arithmetic to those based on hydrological logic and nutritional need.
The writers are associated with the National Council of Applied Economic Research. Views are personal
Over 80 per cent of India’s freshwater withdrawals go to agriculture, much of it lost to inefficient and unsustainable use (Express photo) 
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