How 5 writers – from Marx to Victor Hugo – shaped Bhagat Singh’s political thought

2. God and the State — Michael Bakunin

The book, God and the State, remains a foundational text in anarchist philosophy. (Wikimedia Commons)

Written in 1871 and published posthumously in 1882, God and the State is one of the most famous anarchist works of the 19th century. In it, Mikhail Bakunin attacks organised religion and centralised political authority, arguing that both serve to suppress human freedom. The text is known for its uncompromising defense of reason, science, and individual liberty, alongside its rejection of all hierarchies. The book remains a foundational text in anarchist philosophy. Its rhetorical force and sweeping critique of power structures have kept it in print for well over a century.

3. Les Misérables — Victor Hugo

Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables unfolds against the backdrop of post-Revolutionary France. An illustration of Jean Valjean, under the alias Monsieur Madeleine, by Gustave Brion. (Wikimedia Commons)

Victor Hugo’s monumental 1862 novel spans decades of French history, weaving together the lives of dozens of characters against the backdrop of post-Revolutionary France. At its heart are themes of justice, redemption, and the struggle of the poor. Jean Valjean’s journey from convict to benefactor, Inspector Javert’s relentless pursuit, and the students’ doomed uprising in Paris are among its most enduring episodes. Hugo also uses long historical and philosophical digressions, on topics from the Battle of Waterloo to the sewers of Paris, to build a panoramic portrait of a society in flux. Widely acclaimed, it remains one of the most translated and adapted novels in the world.

4. Career of a Nihilist — S Stepniak

Stepniak’s narrative provides both a human portrait of its protagonists and an insider’s view of the tactics and risks of revolutionary movements. (Wikimedia Commons)

First published in 1889, Career of a Nihilist is a political novel by Sergey Stepniak-Kravchinsky, a Russian revolutionary and writer. Mixing autobiography with fiction, the book depicts the clandestine world of 19th-century Russian radicals: secret societies, political assassinations, and life on the run from the Tsar’s police. Stepniak’s narrative provides both a human portrait of its protagonists and an insider’s view of the tactics and risks of revolutionary movements. The work was part of a wave of European literature that brought the Russian “nihilist” and revolutionary to the attention of English-speaking audiences, shaping perceptions of political activism in Tsarist Russia.

5. The Civil War in France — Karl Marx

The German cover of The Civil War in France, which is Karl Marx’s account of the Paris Commune. (Wikimedia Commons)

Published in 1871, The Civil War in France is Karl Marx’s account of the Paris Commune, the radical socialist government that briefly ruled Paris from March to May 1871. Written as an address to the General Council of the International Workingmen’s Association, it praises the Commune as the first example of the working class seizing political power. Marx details its administrative reforms, such as replacing standing armies with citizen militias and instituting direct democratic control, while also analyzing the reasons for its defeat. The pamphlet became a seminal text in socialist political theory, influencing revolutionary movements worldwide.